Vol. Ill, pp. 53-204, PLS. 2-20 



May 29, 1891 



X. THE 



NATIONAL GEOdp^PHIC MAGAZINE 



AN EXPEDITION 
TO MOUJSTT ST. ELIAS, ALASKA 

ISRAEL C. RUSSELL 




■i'iSCYflV.V 



LSlMi 



WASHINGTON 
Published by the National Geographic Society 



Price $1.50. 




//>■/// the Compliinnits of 



ISRAEL C. RUSSELL, 



L'nitnf States Gaylo^^ical Sun'e 



Washingto?!. D. C. 



Vol. Ill, PP. 53-204, PLS. 2-20 May 29, 1891 

THE 
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



AN EXPEDITION TO MOUNT ST. ELIAS, ALASKA 
BY ISRAEL C. RUSSELL. 

(Arn'i,t('<1 for juihJirdtidii Mdrch IS, 1891.) 



CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Introduction— The Southern Coast of Alaska 55 

Part I — Previous Explorations in the St. Elias Region 58 

Bering, 1741 - 58 

CooM778 . 58 

La Perouse, 178G 58 

Dixon,1787 ^0 

Douglas, 1788 fi2 

Malaspina, 1792 <>2 

Vancouver, 1794 — <>0 

Belcher, 1837 «» 

Tebenkof, 1852 '>f> 

United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1874, 1880 70 

New York Time's Expedition, 188(5 72 

Topham Expedition, 1888 78 

Part II— Narrative of the St. Elias Expedition of 1890 75 

Organization — 75 

Eroni Seattle to Sitka 78 

From Sitka to Yakutat Bay 79 

Canoe Trij) \\\) Yakutat Bay 81 

Base Camp on th e Shore of Yakutat P>ay 86 

First Day's Tramp 89 

Canoe Trip in Disenchantment Bay 9G 

From Yakutat Bay to Blossom Island 103 

Blossom Island 113 

Life a]x)ve the Snow-Lino 1-- 

First Cami> in tlie Snow T-4 

n— Nat. Geog. 1VI.\g., vol. Ill, isoi. (•'':'') 



54 I. ('. /^'.s.sy// — KfjKillfioii ii> Mount SI. FJlax. 

Page. 

Arross Pinnaclo Pass 120 

First full View of St. Elias l.T) 

Summit of Piiinatlc Pass Cliffs l.">7 

Across Seward (ilacicrto Dome Pass 142 

Up the A^'assiz ( ilacicr 147 

Camp on the Newton (Jlacier l'")0 

Ilifjhest Point reaelied lol 

Alone in the highest Camj) h")4 

The Ketnrn l-">« 

Suggestions . 1<>'5 

Part III— Sketeh of the Geology of the St. EHas Region 1()7 

Generel Features ; l'>7 

Yakutat System 107 

Pinnacle System 170 

St. EHas Sehist--- 17:5 

Geological Structure 174 

Part IV— Glaciers of the St. Elias Region 17(1 

Natural Divisions of Glaciers — 17fi 

Alpine (ilaciers 170 

Characteristics of Ali)ine (ilaciers above the Snow-Line 180 

Characteristics of Alpine (ilaciers l)elow the Snow-Miie 1S:5 

Piedmont Glaciers -, • 18") 

Part V— Height and Position of :\rount St. Elias 189 

Appendix A — Official Instructions governing the Expedition 1!)2 

AppcMidix B — Report on topographic Work ; by Mark B. Kerr 1!).") 

Apjiendix (■ — Rei)f)rt on auriferous Sands from Yakutat Bay; l)y .F. 

Stanley-Brown lil() 

App;>ndix D— R.'port on fossil Plants ; by Lester F. Ward 199 

Index 201 

TLU'STl^.VTTOXS. 

Plate 2— Sketcii Map of Alaska --- 5.'] 

3_Map of the St. Elias Region, after La Perouse - 00 

4 — Maj) of the Eastern Shore of Yakutat Bay, after Dixon — (52 

5 — Map of the St. Elias Region, after Malaspina 04 

— Map of Bay de Monti, after Malasi)ina — - -. 0() 

7 — Map of Disenchantment Bay, after >hdaspina --- 08 

8_Sketch !\rai) of St. Elias Region, l)y Mark B. Kerr 75 

n — The IInbl)ard Glacier; drawn from IMiotograph by \. L. 

P.roadbent 100 

10— Wall of Ice on Eastern Side of the Atrevida (ilacier ; from a 

Photograph 102 

n_View on the .\trevida ( dacii'r ; from a Photograph -..- 104 

12 — I'aitranci' of an Icc-Tiumcl ; from a Piiotogra]ih 100 

l;>_I),.l(as in an .\l)andoiicil Lakc-I'.cd ; from a Photograph 108 

14 — A River on tlic Lucia (daricr; from a i'linliigrnph (rcpro- 

diicrd fidui 77/< rM-/-'/7/. April. 1S!I1). 110 



A RocL'-boiual Const. 55 

Page. 

riutc 15 — Entrance to a Glaciiil Tuuucl ; from a Pliolograi)li 112 

IG — View of the Malaspina Glacier from Blossom Island ; from a 

Photograph ; 114 

17 — Moraines on the Marvine Glacier; fnjm a Photograph IKi 

18 — View of the Hitchcoflc Range from near Dome Pass- IIS 

19 — View of Mount St. Elias from Dome Pass; drawn from a 

Photograph 14(j 

20 — View of Mount St. Elias from Seward ( ilacier ; drawn fnjm a 

Photograph 190 

Figure 1 — Diagram illustrating the Formation of Iceljergs 101 

2 — View of a glacial Lakelet ; from a Photograpli .- 119 

3 — Section of a glacial Lakelet 120 

4 — Diagram illustrating the Formation of marginal Crevasses- 128 

5 — Crevasses near Pinnacle Pass ; from a Photograph 130 

() — Snow Crests on Ridges and Peaks ; from Field Sketches 143 

7— Faulted Pebble from Pinnacle Pass 171 

8— F'aulted Pebble from Pinnacle Pass 172 



INTRODUCTION. 
THE SOUTHERN COAST OF ALASKA. 

The southern coast of Ahiska is rennirkahle for the regularity 
of its general outline. If a circle a thousand miles in diameter 
be inscribed on a map of the northern Pacific with a point in 
about latitude 54° and longitude 145° as a center, a large part of 
its northern periphery will be found to coincide with the south- 
ern shore of Alaska l)etweeii Dixon entrance on the east and the 
Alaska peninsula on the west. On the northern part of this 
great coast-circle lies the region explored in the summer of 1890 
and described in the following pages. 

From Cross sound, at the northern end of the great system of 
islands forming southeastern Alaska, westward along the base of 
the Fairweather range, the mountains are exceedingly rugged, 
and present some of the finest coast scenery in the world. There 
are but two inlets east of Yakutat bay on this shore which afford 
shelter even for small boats. These are Lituya l)ay and Dry 
bay. Ships may enter Lituya 1)ay, at certain stages of the tide, 
and find a safe harljor within; l)ut the a|)proaches to Dry l)ay 
are not navigable. West of Yakutat '])ay the coast is equally 
in]ios[iital)le all the wa}^ to Prince William sound. 



50 /. ('. lliii^sill — iliinililiDn In Mniml SI. /-yiiis. 

As if t(j coniitcnsatc for the lack of n'l'u'ic on citlicr v\\i\, tlici-c 
is in the center ol'this great stretch olrdck-lKHind coast, over -"id!) 
iiiiKs in extent, a inagniticent inlet kn(»\vn as Vakutat l)ay, in 
Avhich a thousand ships could find safe ancliora;4-e. On some 
old maps this l)ay is designatetl as " Bale de Monti," "Admiralty 
bay " and " Bering bay," as will be seen Avhen its discovery and 
history are discussed on another page. 

The southern shore of Alaska, for a distance of 200 miles along 
the bases of the Fairweather and St. l^^lias ranges, is formed of a 
low tabledand intervening between the mountains and the sea. 
Vakutat bay is the only bight in this plateau sutiiciently deep 
to reach the mountain to the northward. This bay has a broad 
opening to the sea ; the distance l)etween its ocean cai)es is twenty 
miles, and its extension inland is about the same. Its eastern 
shore is fringed with low, wooiled islands, among which are 
sheltered harbors, safe from every wind that blows. The most 
accessiljle of these is Fort Mulgrave, near its entrance on the 
eastern side. 

The shores of Yakutat bay, on l)oth the east and the? west, are 
low and densely wooded for a distance of twenty-tive miles from 
the ocean, where tlie foot-hills of the mountains l)egin. ' At the 
head of the bay the land rises in steel) hhif^l-^ :iii<^ forms pictur- 
esque mountains, snow-capped the year I'ound. 'i'hest' liigh- 
lands, although truly mountainous in their ])roi)ortions, are but 
the foot-hills of still nolder uplifts innnediately northward. The 
bay extends through an opening in the first range to the liase of 
the white peaks beyond. This o])eniug was examined a century 
ago by ex])lorcrs in search of the delusive " Northwest passage," 
in the hoi)e that it would lead to the long-sought "Strait of 
Annan " — the dream of many voyagers. It was surveyed l»y the 
expedition in command of !\Ialasi)ina in 17!)2, and on account 
of his frustrated hopes was named " Puei'to del l)e-;cngano," or 
"Disenchantment bay," as it has been rendei'i'd by Knglish 
writers. 

The watci-s of Vakutat and Disenchantment hays are deep, 
and broken only l)y islands and reefs along their eastern shores. 
A few soundings made in Disenchantment bay within half a 
mile of the land showed a (U'pth of tVoiu Into 120 fathoms. The 
swell of the ocean is ielt u]) to tlii' very head of the inlet, indi- 
cating, as was remarked to nic by Captain 0. L. Hooper, that 
there are no bars or i-eefs to break the force of the incoming 
swells. 



The Picdiiioid Plateau, and the Moaiitainn. 57 

The lowlands l)nrtloriii>i; Yakutat l)ay on the .southea.st arc 
composed of assorted glacial debris. Much of the country is low 
and swampy, and is reported to contain numerous lakelets. 
Northwest of the bay the plateau is higher than toward the 
southeast, and has a general elevation of about 500 feet at a dis- 
tance of a mile from the shore ; but the height increases toward 
the interior, where a general elevation of 1,500 feet is attained 
over large areas. All of this i)lateau, excepting a narrow fringe 
along the shore, is formed by a great glacier, Ijelonging to wliat 
is termed in this i)apcr the Ptrdiiiont type. There are many 
reasons for believing that the })lateau southeast of Yakutat bay 
was at one time covered by a glacier similar to the one now ex- 
isting on the northwest.* 

The mountains on the northern border of the seaward-stretch- 
ing tal)le-lands, both southeast and northwest of Y^akutat bay, 
are abrupt and })resent steep southward-facing bluffs. This 
escarpment is formed of stratified sandstones and shales, and 
owes its origin to the upheaval of the rocks along a line of frac- 
ture. In other words, it is a gigantic fault scarp. The gravel 
and Ijowlders forming the plateau extending oceanward have 
l)een accumulating on a depressed orographic block (or mass of 
strata moved as a unit by mountain-making forces), which has 
undergone some movement in very recent times, as is recorded 
by a terrace on the fault scarp bordering it. West of Yakutat 
the geological structure is more complex, and long mountain 
sjjurs i)roject into the })latform of ice skirting the ocean. Filling 
the valleys Ijctween the mountain spurs, there are maiiy large 
seaward-flowing glaciers, tributary to the great Peidmont ice- 
sheet. 

This l)rief sketch of the geography of Yakutat bay, together 
with the accom])anying outline map of Alaska (plate 2), will, it 
is lio])ed, aid in making intelligil)le the following historical sketch 
and the narrative of the present expedition. 

* This matter will be discussed in part IV of this paper, where it is also 
shown that Yakutat Ixiy itself was formerly occupied by ijlacial ice. 



I'Airr I. 
PKKVIOI'S EXPLORATIONS IX TIII^: ST. lOLIAS 

KEc;ioX/;= 

F.Kiuxc;, 1741. 

The lii'st (liscoviTy of the soiitlKi'ii coast of Alaska was made 
by N'itus InTiiii:- and AK'xci ('licriknl', in the vessels St. Pchr and 
St. PdiiK ill 1711. On -luly 20 of that year, Jk-ring saw the luouu- 
tains of the mainland, hut anchored his vessels at Kyak island, 
180 miles west of Yakiitat hay, without touchinu; the continental 
shore. A towerinir, snow-clad summit northeast of Kyak island 
was named '' Mount St. Klias," after the })atron saint of the day. 

Cook, 177S. 

The next explorer to visit this })ortion of Alaska was ('a[)(ain 
James Cook, who sailed past the entrance of ^'akutat hay on 
May 4, 1778. Thinkin'j; that this was the hay in which luring 
anehored, he named it " Bering's l)ay." IVFount St. Klias was seen 
in the northwest at a distance oi'40 leagues, hut no atteinj)t was 
matle to measure its height. 

L.v PEKDrsK, 178().t 

Yakutat hay, in wdiich we are si)eciany interested, was next 
seen by the celebrated French navigator, J. F. G. de la Perouse, 
in command of the frigates La Boasfiole and VAdrohibc, on June 
23, 178G. 

Tlie ehart showing the route followt'd by Pa Perouse during 
this portion of his voyage is reproduced in plate o. In the 
splendid atlas aecompanying the narrative of his travels, tlic ex- 
plorer pictures the (|uaint, high-pooped vessels in whicli he cir- 

* For more e(nui)lete bibliographic references than space will allow in 
tills p:ii)er, the reader is referred to Dull and baker's "Partial li^^t of hooks, 
pamphlets, papers in serials, journals and other publications on Alaska and 
adjacent regions ; " in Pacific Coast Pilot: Coasts and bilcts of Alaska; 
second series. U. 8. Coast and Geodetic 8urvey, AVashington, I87i) ; 4°, 

i)p. 22r)-;}75. 

t Voyage de la Perouse autour du monde. Four vols., 4°, and atlas; 
Paris, 17!)7 ; vol. 2, pp. l:J0-15(). 

(5S) 



The ear lied Exploraiions. 59 

cuninaviii-ated the <il(il)e. Those French frigates were the first 
to cruise off Yakutat Imy. The last vessel to navigate those 
waters was the United States revenue steamer Corwin, which took 
our little exi)loring party on hoard in September, 1890, and then 
steamed northward to the ice-cliffs at the head of Disenchant- 
ment l)ay. So l\ir as I am aware, the Corwin is the only vessel 
that has floated on the waters of that inlet north of Haenke 
island. One hundred years has made a revolution in naval 
architecture, but has left this portion of the Alaska coast still 
unexplored. 

La Perouse sailed northward from the Sandwich islands, and 
first saw land, which proved to be a portion of the St. IClias 
range, on June ' 23. At first the shore was obscured by fog, 
which, as stated in the narrative of the voyage, " suddenly dis- 
appearing, all at once disclosed to us a long chain of mountains 
covered with snow, which, if the weather had been clear, we 
would have been able to have seen thirty leagues farther off. 
We discovered Bering's Mount Saint Elias, the sunnnit of which 
appeared above the clouds." 

The first view of the land is descrilied as not awakening the 
feelings of joy which usually accompany the first view of an 
unknown shore after a long voj^age. To quote the navigator's 
own words : 

" Those immense heaps of snow, which covered a liarren land withont 
trees, were for from agreeable to our view. The mountains appeared a 
little remote from the sea, which broke against a bold and level land, 
elevated about a hundred and fifty or two hundred fathoms. This black 
rock, which appeared as if calcined by fire, destitute of all verdure, formed 
a striking contrast to the whiteness of the snow, which was perceptible 
through the clouds ; it served as the base to a long ridge of mountains, 
which appeared to stretch fifteen leagues from east to west. At first we 
thought ourselves very near it, the summit of the mountains appeared to 
be just over our heads, and the snow cast forth a brightness calculated to 
deceive eyes not accustomed to it ; but in proportion as we advanced we 
perceived in front of the high ground hillocks covered with trees, which 
we took for islands." 

After some delay, on account of foggy weather, an officer was 
despatched to the newly discovered land ; but on returning he re- 
ported that there was no suital)le anchorage to be found. It is 
diflficult at this time to understand the reason for this adverse 
re]iort. unless a landing was attem])ted on the western side of 
Yakutat bav, wlicrc tlicrc arc no liarbors. 



GO /. C. Ri(ss('II—Kri>(ill/!nii to .]fnnnt St. AVm.s'. 

ThcMiamo '' I^aio (](_■ Monti " was irlvcn to tlic inlet in honor 
of Do Monti, tlu' oHiccr who first landed. The location of tliis 
bay, as described in the narrative and indicated on the niaj) 
accompanyinu- tlie report of the voyage, shows that it corresponds 
with the Yakutat l)ay of niodcM-n niajjs. 

Observations made at this time by M. Dajielet, the astronomer 
of the expedition, detei-niined the elevation of Mount St. Elias 
to be 1 ,9S() toises. ('onsiderin<i; the toise as etiiiivalent to (5. 39450 
En<rlish feet, this measurement ))laces the elevation of the moun- 
tain at 12,()(3t) feet. W'liat mrtliod was used in makin<>; this 
measurement is not recorded, and we have therefore no means 
of decidinti; the dei>;ree of contidence to be ])laced in it. 

After failing to find an anchorage at Yakutat l)ay,La Pcrouse 
sailed eastward, and on June 2'.) discovered another bay, whicli he 
supposed t(^ be the iidet named " Ik'ring's bay" by Captain Cook. 
It will l)e remembered that Cook's "Bering's l:)ay " is Yakutat 
bay as now known. It is evident that the French navigator 
made an error in liis idcntifi(^ation, as the inlet designated as 
Bering's bay on his chart corres]n)nds with that now known as 
Dry l)ay. On tlu^ majjs referrcMl to, a. stream is represented as 
cm[)tying into the liend of this l)ay and rising a long distance 
northward; this is evidently Alsek river, the existence of which 
was for a long time doubted, l)ut has recently been established 
I)e3^ond all (juestion. 

Finding it impossible to enter Dry bay, La Perouse ccmtinued 
eastAvard and discovered Lituya bay, as now known, but which 
he named " Port des Francais." Here his ships anchoi-ed, alter 
experiencing great diiriculty in entering the harbor, and remained 
for many days, during which trade was carried on with the In- 
dians, wliihi surveys were nuide of the adjacent shonvs. 

Dixox, 17S7.=i^ 

Although the actual discovery of Yakutat bay is to be crcditi'd 
to the French, the first cx})loration of its shores was made by an 
h^nglish captain. On May 28, 1787, Captain (leorge Dixon an- 
chored his vessel, the Queen Ch((rl()tfe, within the shelter of its 
southeastern cape, and, in honor of Constance John i'bipp-^. 
Lord Mulirravc. named the hnvcn there discovered '' Port Mul- 



* The Voyutio around tlu> World ; l>a1 inoro j)arMcnliirly to the Xortli- 
wcst ( 'oiist of .'ViiKM-icM. I'i'rfonncd in 17SS-17S!), in the Klmj (•'mri/r awil 
(Jiirni cliiirlnllr : Cnptinns I'.irt luck mid Dixon: I", l.oml'.n, 17SU. 



Early English Expl^-ations. 61 

grave." The harbor is described in the narrative of Dixon's 
voyage as being " entirely surrounded l)y low, Hat islands, where 
scarcely any snow could be seen, and well sheltered from any 
winds whatever." 

The voyage of the Queen Charhtte was not made for the pur- 
pose of increasing geographic knowledge, but with a commercial 
ol)ject. Trade was at once opened with the natives, Init resulted 
less favorably than was desired, as only sixteen sea-otter skins 
and a few less valuable furs were secured. 

On the chart accompanying the narrative of Dixon's voyage 
the inlet now known as Yakutat bay is named "Admiralty bay." 

A survey of the adjacent shores and inlets was made, and the 
astronomical position of the anchorage was apj)roximately de- 
termined. The map resulting from these surveys, the first ever 
made of any portion of Yakutat bay, is reproduced on a reduced 
scale as plate 4. 

At the time of Dixon's voyage, the inhabitants numbered 
about seventy, including men, women, and cliiVlren, and were 
thus described : 

" They are of about middle size, their limbs straight and well shaped, 
but, like the rest of the inhabitants we have seen on the coast, are par- 
ticularly fond of painting their faces with a variety of colors, so that it is 
not any easy matter to discover their real complexion." 

An amusing instance is narrated of inducing a woman to wash 
her face, when it was discovered that — 

" Her countenance had all the cheerful gloM^ of an English milk maid 
and the healthy red which flushed her cheeks was even heautlfnlhi con- 
trasted with the whiteness of her neck ; her eyes were black and spark- 
ling ; her eyebrows the same color, and most beautifully arched ; her 
forehead so remarkably clear that the transparent veins were seen niean- 
dering even in their minutest branches — in short, she was what would be 
reckoned as handsome even in England. The symmetry of her features, 
however, was marred, at least in the eyes of her English admirer, by the 
habit of wearing a labret in the slit of her lower lip." 

During our recent visit to Port Mulgrave we did not find tlie 
native women answering to the glowiiig description of the voy- 
ager who discovered the harbor ; but this may be owing to the 
fact that we did not j)revail upon any of them to wash their 
faces. 

One other discrepancy must Ije noted l»etween the records of 
Dixon's voyage and my own observations, made one hundred 

10— Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. Ill, 1891. 



02 I. ('. Rii.'^iicJl — Krpcditinii fo Momtt Sf. Iilias. 

years later. Tlic houses dt' tlu- natives are desta-ilied in tlie nar- 
rative just cited as — 

"The most wretched liovels tliat can ]i()Sf;i1)ly be conceived: a few poles 
stuck in tlie irnmnd, witliont (ndcr or rcL:nlaiity, recrossed and covered 
with loose l)()ards, * * * (|uitc insullicicnt to ki't'j) out tlic snow and 
rain." 

While this (leseri])ti()n would a|i]ily to the temporary shelters 
now used by the Yakutat Indians when on their sunnner hunt- 
i\v^ and iishing expeditions, it hy no means describes the liouses 
in which they pass the winter. These are large and substantially 
built of ]danks hewn from spruce trees, and in some instances 
supported from the inside by four huge posts, carved and painted 
to represent grotesque figures. In the center of the roof there 
is a large opening through wdiich the smoke esca})es from the 
fire kindli'd in an ()])en space in the floor. Hut few of tlii' 
Indian villages of Alaska, exce[iting perhaps the homes of 
the Thlinkets in the iVlexandrian archipelago, are better built or 
more comfortable than those at Port ^lulgrave. 

()u the map of J'ort JNIulgrave already referred to, '" Point 
Turner "' and '' Point C'arrew " appear. The former was named for 
the second mate of the Queen (ViarhiHe, who was the first of her 
officers to laml ; the second nanu' was probably (h'sigued to honor 
another ollicer of the exi»e(litiou, but of this I am not positive. 

J)oU(iLAS, 178<S;^= 

In 1788, anotlicr trading vessel, the ship Iphif/criia, in com- 
mand of ('a})tain Douglas, visited the southern shore of Alaska 
and anchored in Yakutat bay; but no special account of the 
country or the inhabitants is recorded in the narrati\"e of the 
voyage. 

INFalaspina, 17*.)2.t 

About a hundred yi'ai's ago the intt'rest felt by the maritime 
nations of Europe in a '' Northwest passage,"' connecting the 



* Voyage of the Jj)]ii(/mia ; Captain Dousrlas: in Voyages nuide in the 
years 1788-17S1) from China to tlie Northwest Coast of America. John 
Meares, 4°, London, 17i)(). 

t Relacion del viage hecho por las gok'las Sutil y ]\h'Nicana vn el afio dc 
17!>2 para reconocer el estrecho de Fuca ; con una introiluccjon en »ini' sc 
da noticia dc las cxpcdicionesexecntadas antcriornicnlc por los lOspanoIcs 
en linsca del paso del noroeste de la America [Tor l>on Dionisio Alcala 
(ialiano]. Madrid, ISirj [accomi>anie(l l.y an atlasj. \'[<. CXIl-CXXl. 



NAT. GEOG. MAG, 



VOL. Ill, 1951 PL. 4. 




MAP OF THE EASTERN SHORE OF YAKUTAT BAY, AFTER DIXON, 



D'lHvovcrii of Di.sciic/ianfiiK'iif ItdiJ. 63 

nortliern Atlantic with the northern Pacitic, was revived hy the 
renewal of the (liseussion as to the authenticity of Maldonado's 
reported discovery of the " Strait of Annan." The western en- 
trance to this strait was su})i)osed to he al)ont in the })osition of 
Yakutat hay. Spijin, in particular, after three hundred years of 
exidoration and discovery in all parts of the world, was still 
anxious to extend her conquests, and, if possible, to discover the 
long-souwht " Northwest passage." Two of her ships, the Des- 
cubiciia and Atrevida, were then at Acapulco, in command of Don 
Alejandro Malaspina, who was engaged in a voyage of discovery. 

Malaspina, like Columbus, was a native of Italy in the service 
of Spain. Orders were sent to him to cruise northward and test 
the truth of Maldonado's report. The narrative of this voyage 
is supposed to have been written by Don Dionisio Alcala Galiano, 
but his name does not appear on the title page. Still more 
curious is the tact that Malaspina 's name is omitted from the 
narrative of his own voyage. On his return to Sixain, he was 
thrown into prison, on account of court intrigues, and his dis- 
coveries were suppressed for many years. 

Malaspina left Acapulco on the first of May, 1791, and reached 
the vicinity of the present site of Sitka on June 25. Two days 
later. Mount Fairweather, or " Monte Buen-tiempo," as it is 
designated on Spanish maps, was sighted. Continuing north- 
westward, the entrance to Yakutat bay was reached. The open- 
ing thi]ough the first range of mountains at its head seemed to 
correspond to Maldonado's description of the entrance to the 
mythical " Strait of Annan." 

The eastern shore of Yakutat l)ay, called "aVlmiralty l)ay " on 
the Spanish chart, was explored, and an excursion was made in 
boats into Disenchantment l)ay as far as Haenke island. " Disen- 
chantment bay," as the name appears on modern charts, was 
named " Desengano bay" by Malaspina, as previously stated, in 
allusion to the frustration of his hopes on not finding a passage 
leading to the Atlantic. Explorations in Disenchantment bay 
w^ere checked by ice, which descended from the north and filled 
all of the inlets north of Haenke island. This is indicated on the 
map forming plate 7 (page (>S), whicli is reproduced from the atlas 
accompanying the narratiA^e of Malaspina "s voyage. Special inter- 
est attaches to this map for the reason that by comparing it with 
that forming plate 8 (page 75), made 100 years later, the retreat 



64 /. ('. ItiissiU — Exprditioii to Mount St. Eliai^. 

of the filaciers (lurin<j; that interval can he (lett'i-niincd.* At the 
time of Mulasj)ina's ex})e(liti()n, the Huhl)ar(l and Dahon glaciers 
were united, and were i)r()l)ahly also joined l)v some of the 
neighl>oring irlaciers wliich do not now reach tide-Avater; the 
whole forminjij a confluent ice stream whii-h occui)ied all of 
Disenchantment bay northeast of Haenke island. 

A portion of the general map of the coast of southern Alaska, 
showing the route followed by the De.-^nihicrta and the Atrerirla, 
and depicting the topography of the adjacent shores, has been 
rei)roduced in i)latc 5. It will be noticed that on this map 
Lituya bay is called " Pt. des Francais,'' while Dry l)ay is desig- 
nated as " Bering's bay.'' These and other names were adopted 
fi-oni the maps of La Perouse. A map of " Bahia de Monti," from 
Malas[)ina's report, is reproduced m plate 6. 

An extract from Galiano's account of Malaspina's discoveries 
in Yakutat and Diseiichantnient bays,t translated by Robert 
Stein, of the U. S. Geological Survey, is here inserted, in order 
that tlie reader may be able to form an independent judgment 
of the value of the evidence just referred to as bearing on the 
retreat of the glaciers : 

"An observatory was establishcil on shore, and sonie al>sulut(' altitndcs 
were taken in order to furnish a basis for the reckoninp of the watches; 
but the great concourse of Indians, their importunity and thievishness, 
made it necessary to transfer all the instruments on Iward. Still the lati- 
tude was determined, the watches were regulated, the number of oscilla- 
tions maile l)y the sim])le pendulum was observed, and the height of 
Mount St. Klias was measured, beincr (),o07.6 varas [17,<S47 feet] above sea- 
level. The launches bc;ing ready, put to sea on July 2 with the commander 
of the expedition, in order to reconnoitre the channel promised J)y the 
openin<r, similar to that depicted by Ferrer Maldonado in his voyajire ; l)ut 
the small force of the tide noticed at the entrance, and the indications of 
the natives, made it plain not only that the desired pas.«age did not exist 
there, but that the extent of the channel was very short ; which Mas also 
rendered evident by the perpetual frost covering the inner west shore.v 
The launches anchored there, having penetrated into the channel Avith 
great difficulty, the oars being i-logged by the floating masses of snow ; 
they measured a base, made some marks, gathered various olyects ami 
stones for the naturalists, and, having reached the line of perpetual frost, 

* It must be remend)ered, lK)wever, that the map, plate 8, is not from 
detaileil surveys; the portion referred to was sketclied from a few stations 
oidy and is much generalizeil. 

t"ll)id., pp. XCTV-CXVI. 



MaUixp'nid's Mcuxiifciixiit of Sf. Elia.s. 65 

returned to the l);iy wliere they had unelKored. [*] Tliey there ol);-erved the 
latitude to be 59° 5U' .')0'^, and six azinuiths of the sun, whieli gave the 
variation of the needle as 32° 49^. Before leaving that anchorage the com- 
mander buried a l)ottle with record of the reconnoissance and possession 
taken in the name of the king. They called the harbor Desangano, the 
opening Bahia de las Bancas, and the island in the interior Haenke, in 
memory of D. Tadeo Haenke, botanist and naturalist of the ex})edition. 
On the third day they set out on their voyage to Mulgrave, where they 
arrived on the 6th, after reconnoitering various channels and islands north 
of that port and mapping them." 

Following the i)ortion of the narrative above ({noted, there is 
an account of the natives, containing much information of 
interest to ethnologists, l:)ut which it is not necessary to follow 
in a geographic rei)ort. On July o the corvettes sailed west- 
ward, aKd made a reconnoissance as far as Montegue island. 
Returning eastward, they again sighted Mount St. Elias on 
July 22. 

" On the 28th they were three leagues west of the capes which terminate 
in Bering bay [Dry bay] ; the mountain of that name being about live 
leagues distant from the coast and rising 5,368.3 varas [l-t,722 feet] above 
the sea-level, and in latitude 59° 0^ 42'^ and longitude 2° ¥ from Port 
Mulgrave." 

Mount Bering does not a})pcar on any map that I have seen. 
A\'hicli of the numerous high peaks in the vicinity of Dry bay 
should Ije designated by that name remains to be determined. 

In a record of the astronomical work of Malaspina's expedi- 
tion t there are some interesting ol)servations on the ])Osition 
and elevation of Mount St. Elias, a translation of which, Ijy Mr. 
Stein, is here given : 

"True longitude of Mulgrave west of Cadiz, 133° 24' 12". On the same 
day, the 30th of June [1792], at the observatory of Mulgrave, at (ih. 30' in 
the morning, the true altitude of the sun was observed to l)e 1()° 14' 20", 
and its inclination being 23° 11' 30" and the latitude 59° 34' 20", the true 
azimuth of the sun from north to east was concluded to be 71° 43' 0". 
But having measured on the same occasion with the theodolite 110° 33' 
from the sun's vertical to the vertical of Mount St. Elias, the difference 
between these two quantities is the astronomic azimuth. Hence, from 



* On the coast of the mainland east of Knight island. — I. C. R. 

t^Memorias sobre las observaciones astronomicas hechas jwr les nave- 
gantes Espanoles en distintcjs lugares del giol)e ; Por Don Josef Espinosa 
y Tello. Madrid, en la Imprente real, Afio de 1809, 2 vols., large 8° ; vol. 
1, pp. 57-()0. 



G() /. ('. /I'lis.sr// — E.r^x (I'lliiHi In Mminl St. /-yid.s. 

tilt' olisrrvatury ul" Mu!.i,'r;i\e,sai<l iiiiniiitaiii licars N. ;JS° ."(()' \V., a ilistaiici' 
of .V).l luilos, (kMliii'oil l>y lueaiiH of ^ood ohservatidus fnmi thr cuds of a 
ijullii'ient base. A (juatlraut was iiHed to ineasuiv the anyjle of apparent 
altitude of the mountain, 2° US'' (!"', and allo\vin.<^ for terrestrial refraction, 
wliieh is one-tenth of the distanee of oo.l miles, the tnie altitude was 
found to be 2° o4' I]!)''; whenee its elevation a])ove sea-level was concluded 
to lie 2,7n.") toises [17,S(iO feet], and the lentrth of the tangent to the hori- 
zon, ir)2 miles, allowance lieiuL:' ma le for tlu' increase due to terrestrial 
refrai'tion * ■''. 

" Lastly, with the rhumb, or astronomic a/.inuith, and the distance from 
the observatory tif Mul<4rave to ]Monnt St. Elias, it was ascertained that 
that mountain was -i'.V W to the north and 1° !)' to the west, whence its 
latitude is found to be ()0° 17' ;;")" and its longitude i:!4° I!:/ !()'' west of 
Cadiz." 



1\ikin;i- tlu' longitude of Cadiz as (')° VX 07" \V. (San Sehastian 
liiilit-ii(insc), the loii'^itiidc oi' St. Elias iVoui tliis (leteniiinatioii 
wouhl be 140° .")2' 17" W. 

Vax(ouvi-:i{, 1794.* 

The next vessels to visit Yakutat bay after Malaspiua's voyage, 
so far as known, were the Discoreri/ and Chatham, luider coni- 
iiiand i)f ('ai)tain (ieorife Vancouver. This voya^ne increased 
kuowledue of the ,ii-eoii;rai)liy of southern Alaska more than any 
that ])receded it, and was also of u;reater iin]iortance than any 
siiiule expedition of later date to tliat region. 44ie best maps of 
southern Alaska pul)Hshed at the [)resent (hiy are based larirely 
on the surveys of Vaiieouver. 

The Diacovcrji, under the inunediate connuand of \'ancouver. 
and the Chniham, in charge of Peter Puget, cruised eastward 
along the southern coast of Alaska in 1794. The Dkcorerii passed 
the entranee to Yakutat bay without sto})ping, hut the ('hafhaiii 
anchored there, and important surveys were earried on under 
Puget's directions. 

On Jiuie 2S, the Di-^rorcrj/ was in the vicinity of ley l)ay, Avhere 
the shore of the ocean seemed to l)e composed of solid ice. East- 
ward from ley bay tlie coast is described as "bordered by low- 
lands rising with a gradual and uniform ascent to the foot-hills 
of lofty mountains, whose sumnnts are but the l)ase from which 
>b)unt St. Klias lowt'rs magnilicently into the regions of per- 

*A Voyage of Discovery to the Northern Pacific Ocian and around 
the World, 17!)0-'95; new edition, (J vols., London, 1801. The citations 
which follow are from vol. 5, pp. 348-407. 




V J 'S ^ 5 '^ 



PvgeC^ Cruise and Discoveries. 67 

petiial frost." A low projecting point on the western side of the 
entrance to Yakutat l)ay was named " Point Manby." The coast 
beyond this toward the northeast l:)ecanie less wooded, and seemed 
to produce only a l)rownish vegetation, which farther eastward 
entirely disappeared. The country was then bare and composed 
of loose stones. The narrative contains an interesting account 
of the grand coast scenery from St. Elias to the eastern end of 
the Fairweather range ; but this does not at present claim atten- 
tion. 

^\'hile the Chatham continued her cruise eastward, Puget as- 
cended Yakutat bay nearly to its head, and also navigated some 
of the channels between the islands along its eastern shore. A 
cape on the eastern side, where the l)ay penetrates the first range 
of foot-hills, was named " Point Latouche ; " l:)ut the same land- 
mark had previously Iteen designated " Pa. de la Es})eranza " 
by ]\Ialasi)ina. The l»ay at the head of the inlet, which Malas- 
pina had named " Desangano," was named " Digges sound," 
after one of the otHcers of the Chailiam. Boats were sent to ex- 
plore this inlet, but found it " closed from side to side by a firm, 
com2:)act body of ice, beyond wliich, to the back of the ice, a small 
inlet appeared to extend N. 55° E. about a league."* 

These observations confirm those made by Malaspina and in- 
dicated on the chart reproduced on plate 7, where the ice front 
is represented as reaching as far south as Haenke island. 

The evidence furnished by Malaspina and Vancouver as to 
the former extent of the glaciers at the head of Yakutat bay is 
in harmony with observations made by Vancouver's party in Icy 
strait and Cross sound.f Early in July, 1794, these straits were 
found to be heavily encuml)ered with floating ice. At the pres- 
ent time l>ut little ice is met with in that region. On ^Vancouver's 
charts there is no indication that he was aware of the existence 
of Glacier Ijay, although one of his rf:)fhcers, in navigating Icy 
strait, passed its immediate entrance. These records, although 
somewhat indefinite and of negative character, indicate that the 
fields of floating ice at the mouth of Glacier bay were nuich more 
extensive a hundred years ago than at present ; Init they do not 
show where the glaciers of that region formerly terminated. 

After the return of the Chathain''s boats from the exploration of 

* Vancouver's Voyage, vol. ."), ],. ;!S9. 
tibid., pp. 417-421. 



G8 7. ('. UiixsrII—ExiHiVilion In Mnnnt Sf. AVm.s. 

l)isoncli:intni('iit l>ay, an exploration of tlie eastern sliorc of 
Yakutat l>ay was made. The following extract indicates the 
eharaetei" of woi'k done tiiere: 

" Dijigos' soiiiid [1 lisciicliantincnt Itay] was the only ]>lace in the l>ay 
tluit i)resente(l the least |ir(is|icct (if any interim- naviuation, and this was 
neeessai'ily very liniiled )>>• tlu' close eonneeteil i'an,<i-e of lofty snowy 
nionntains that stretched along theeoast at nogreat distance from the sea- 
sick'. .Mr. Puuet's attention was next directed to the opening in the low 
land, but as the wind was variable and adverse to the progress of the 
vessel, a boat was again desi)atched to continue the investigation of these 
shoi\s, which are conii)aet from Point Latouche and were then free from 
ice. This opening was found to be tbrini'd by an island about two nules 
long, in a din'ction S. ')()° E. and N. ')'~)° \V., and aliout a mile hroa 1, lying 
at the distance of abodt half u mile from the mainland. ()pposite to the 
south ])art of this, named by Mr. Puget Knight's Isl.xxd, is I'lleanor's cove, 
which is the eastern extrendty of Beering's [Yakutat] bay, in latitude oi)" 
44'. longitude 220° 5K. Knight's island admits of a navigable passage all 
round it, but there is an isJet situated between it and the mainland on its 
northeast side. I'rom Eleanor's cove the coast takes a direction S. ;>0° \V. 
about six nnles to the east ]»oint of a channel leading to the southwest^ 
between the continent and some islands that lie oft" it. This was con- 
sidered to lead along the shores of the maiidand to Point Mulgrave, and 
in the event of its proving navigable, the examination of the bay would 
have been complete, and the vessel brought to our appointt'(l place of 
meeting, whiidi was now su])pose(l to 1k' no very great distance." 

In endeavoring to reach Port Mulgrave by a channel leading 
between the islands on the eastern side of the bay and the main- 
land, the Chatham grounded, and was gotten off with considera- 
ble difficulty. jNIany observations concerning the geogr.iphy and 
the natives are recorded in the narrative of this exploration. 

Bklcukr, 1887.* 
The next account f of explorations around Yakutat bay that 



* Narrative of a Voyage round the World, performed in the ship Sulphur 
during the years 18:5()-1S42 ; by CajitainSir Edward Belcher: 2 vols., 8°, 
London, 1S4:!. 

fA fort was built by the Russians, in ITiT), on the strip of land separating 
Bay de ISIonti from the ocean, and was colonized by convicts from Russia. 
In LSO.'i, all of the settlers were killed and the fort was destroyed by the 
Yakutat Indians. So complete was this massacre that no detailed account 
of it has ever aiipeaied. (Alaska and its Resources, by W. H. Hall, 1870, 
pp. 310, 317, 323.) 



NAT GEOG MAG 



'OL. irr, l&Ol. PL 7. 




MAP OF DISENCHANTMENT BAY, AFTER MALASPINA. 



Ice Clip at Icy Bay. 69 

has come to hand is by Sir Edward Belcher, who visited that 
coast in Her Majesty's ship SuJpJiur in 1S37. 

In the narrative of this voyage, a Inief account is given of the 
ice cliffs at Icy bay, which are stated to have a heiglit of about 
thirty feet and to jjresent the a})])earance of veined marble. Where 
the ice was exposed to the sea it was excavated into alcoves and 
archways, recalling to the narrator's mind the Chalk cliffs of 
England. " Point Riou," as named l)y ^'ancouver, was not rec- 
ognized, and the inference seems to l)e that it was formed of ice 
and was dissolved away between tlie visits of \"an<'ouver and 
Belcher. 

Accompanying the narrative of Belcher's voyage is an illustra- 
tion showing Mount St. Elias as it appears from the sea near Icy 
bay, which represents the mountain more accurately than some 
similar pictures published more recently. 

The »S';(//)/;;;/- ancliored in Port Mulgrave; but no account is 
given of the character of the surrounding country. 

Tebenkof, 1852.* 

Tebenkof 's notes, which are often referred to by writers on 
Alaska, consist principally of compilations from reports of Rus- 
sian traders, which were intended to accompany and explain an 
atlas of the shores of northwestern America, puldished in 1852 
in St. Petersburg and in Sitka. 

]Map number 7 of the atlas represents the southern coast of 
Alaska from Lituya bay westward to Icy bay. On the same 
sheet there is a more detailed chart of the islands along the 
eastern border of Yakutat bay. 

The height of St. Elias is given as 17,000 feet; its position, 
latitude (Jl° 2' 6" and longitude 140° 4', distant 30 miles from 
the sea.t It is stated that in 1839 the mountain " began at times 
to smoke through a crater on its southeastern slope." At the 
time of an earthquake at Sitka (1847) it is said to have emitted 
flames and ashes. 

* Atlas of the Xorthwest Coast of America from Bering strait to Cape 
Corrientes ami the Aleutian Islands [etc.] : 2°, St. Petersburg, 1S52. With 
index and hydrographic observations : 8°, St. Petersburg, 1852. 

t In a foot-note on page 33 it is stated that Captain Vasilef, in the ship 
Olkryt'te {Dlscoreri^), ascertained the height of Mount Fiiirweather to be 
1:5,946 feet. 

11— Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. Ill, 18!U. 



70 I. C. J!usscll — K.ipalition io Mounf Si. Elian. 

It will be seen from the aeeount of the exploration earried on 
last suniiner that ^h)unt St. Elias is (•oni])os(!(l of stratified rocks, 
with no in(n(atinii ol' volcanic oi-iLiin ; and these reports of cinip- 
tion nuist eonseqnently l)e coiisidered erroneous. 

The low eonntrv hetw(HMi ^Fount St. Elias and the sea is de- 
S!'i'il»tMl liy Tclx'nkof as a tnndra ci)\('rc(l with t'orcsts and li'i'ass ; 
"throujih cracks in the jiravelh' soil, ice could he seen ]»eneath." 
Moi'(> recent knowleduc shows that this statement also is errone- 
ous. The ailjaccnt ocean is state(l to he shallow, with shelvin<>- 
])ottom : at a distance of half a verst, live to twelve fathoms were 
ol)tained, and at two miles liom land, thiily to forty fathoms (of 
seven feetj. 

The Pimpluna rocks are said to have heeii discovered in ITT'.I 
l)y the Spanish cai)tain Arteiga. 'i'hey wei'e also seen in 17*)4 hy 
the helmsman Talin, in the ship Ord, and named after his vessel. 
These observations are inteivstinii', and indicate that possil)ly 
there may bi' submerf>-e(l moraines in the region whei'e these 
rocks are reported to exist. 

Many other observations are recorded concei'ning the moun- 
tains and the bays in the vicinity of Vakutat. While of interest 
to navigation and to geograjdiers, these have no innnediate con- 
nection with the region exi)lored during the recent exi)edition. 

Umtku Statks Coast and (iKonirric Siijn'kv, lS74.-i- iSSU.t 

The surveys carrie(l on in 1S74 l)y the I'nited Statt'S Coast 
Survev on the shores of Alaska eml)race(l the region about 
Yakutat bay. They were conducted by \\ . II. Dall and Ahircus 
Baker. Besides the survey of the coast-line, deternnnations were 
made of the heights and ])Ositions of several monntain pt'aks 
In'tween (ilacier bay and Cook inlet. Dalls ac(;ount of this 
survey contains a 1)rief sketch of })revious exjdorations and a 
sunnnary of the measurements of the higher peaks of the I'cgion. 
This material has been used on anothei' page in discussing the 
height of Mount St. Elias. 

Besides the geographic data gathei-ed l)y the United States 
Coast Survey, many ol)servations were made on geology and on 
the glaciers of the region about Yakutat bay an<l .Mount St. 
Elias. Exception nuist be taken, in the light of mon- recent 

* ApiK'iiilix Nil. It), Kcporl of tlie Supri-iiiteiiclciit (if'tlie C. S. ( 'dust Sur- 
vey Ibrtiie yi'Ui- IS?'); Wasliiiiuteii, 1S7S, pp. i:)7-lSS. 

\ I'acitic Coast I'iiut, Alaska, part 1 : Wasirm^teii, ISS'!, p. I'll'. 



Din'oreri/ of the Jf<if(isj>hi(i (Racier. 71 

cxi)loratioiis, to t^oine of tlie conchisions reached in tliis connec- 
tion, as will appear in the cliapter devoted to geology and glaciers. 
A description of the St. Elias region in the Pacific Coast Pilot 
supplements the paper in the coast survey report for 1875. This 
is an exhaustive compilation from all available sources of infor- 
mation interesting to navigators. It contains, besides, a A'aluable 
summary of Avhat was knoAvn at the time of its publication con- 
cerning the history and physical features of the country to which 
it relates. In this pul )licati( )n the true character of the Malaspina 
glacier was first recorded and its name ])roposed. The dcscri[)- 
tion is as follows : 

" At Point ]Man))y and eastward to the Kwik viwv tlir shore was bor- 
dered by trees, ai)parently willows and alders, with ii somewhat denser 
Ijelt a little farther back. Behind this rises a blutt"or bank of high land, 
as described by various navigators. About tlie vicinity of Tebienkotf 's 
Nearer Point the trees cease, but begin again near the river. The blufi' or 
table-land behind rises liigher than the river valley and conijiletely hides 
it from the southward, and is in summer bai'e of vegetation (except a few 
i-are patches on its face) and apparently is composed of glacial debris, much 
of wdiich is of a reddish color. In May, 1874, when observed by the U. S.- 
Coast Survey party of that year, the extensive flattened top of this table- 
land or plateau was covered with a smooth and even sheet of pure wdiite 
snow. In the latter part of June, ISSO, however, this snow had melted, 
and for the first lime the real and most extraordinary character of this 
plateau was revealed. Within the beucli and extending in a northwesterly 
direction to the valley behind it, at the font of the St. Elias Alps an unde- 
termined distance, this plateau, or a large part of it, is one great field of 
buried ice. Almost everywhere nothing is visible but bowlders, dirt and 
gravel ; but at the time mentioned, back of the l)ight between Point 
Manby and Xearer Point, for a space of several square miles the coverlid 
of dirt had fallen in, owing to the melting of the ice beneath, and revealed 
a surface of l^roken pinnacles of ice, each crowned by a patch of dirt, stand- 
ing close to one another like a forest of prisms, these decreasing in height 
from the summit of the plateau gradually in a sort of semicircular sweep 
toward the beach, near which, however, the dirt and debris again predom- 
inate, forming a sort of terminal moraine to this immense, buried, immov- 
able glacier, for it is nothing else. Trains of large bowlders were visible 
here and there, and the general trend of the glacier seemed to be north- 
west and southeast. 

" Between Disenchantment bay and the foot of Mount St. Elias, on the 
flanks of the Alps, seventeen glaciers were counted, of which about ten 
were behind this plateau, but none are of very large size, and the sum 
total of them all seemed fiir too little to supply the waste of the plateau if 
it were to possess motion. The lower ends of these small glaciers come 



72 1. ('. liiiHSill — J'J.rprdifinii Id Moiiiif Sf. Elias. 

down into tlic livrr valley before mentioned and at rijilit angles in general 
to the trend of'tlu' plateau. To the buried glacier the U. S. Coast Survey 
has applied the name of ^[alasi)ina, in honor of that distinguished and 
unfortunate explorer. No eonneetion eould be seen between the small 
glaciers and the Malaspina i>lateau, as the former dip below the level of 
tlie summit of the latter. The .Malaspina had no neve, nor was there any 
high land in the direction of its a*is as far as the eye could reach. Every- 
where, I'xcept where the jjinnacles protrudi'd and in a few spots on the face 
of the bluff, it was covered with a tliick stratum of soil, gravel and stones, 
here and there showing small patches of briglit green herbage. The bluff 
westw'ard from Point Manl)y may probably prove of the same character." 

Mount Cook ;ui(l Mount \":uirouver are named in tlie Pacific 
Coast Pilot, and their elevations and po.sitions are definitely 
stated. Mount ^Malaspina was also named, but its position 
is not >iiven. During the expedition of last sunniier it was 
fotmd imin'aeticable to decide definitely to which i)eak the name 
of the great navigator Avas applied. So existing nomenclature 
was followed as nearly as possible by attaching IMalaspina's name 
to a i)eak about eleven miles east of ]N[ount St. Elias. Its posi- 
tion is indicated on the accompanying ma}>, plate 8 (page 75). 

Several charts of the southern coast of Alaska accompany the 
reports of the United States Coast Survey for 1875, referred to 
above. A part of these have been independejitly published. 
These charts were used in niai)])ing the coast-line as it ajtpears 
on ])late 8, and were freiiucntly consulted Avhile writing the fol- 
lowing })ages. 

New Yoi;k Times Expedition, 1886. 

An expedition sent out by the New York Timrs, in charge of 
Lieutenant Frederick Schwatka, for the pur])ose of making geo- 
grai)hic explorations and climbing Mount St. Elias, left Sitka 
on the U. S. S. Plnta. on July 10, 1886, and reached Yakutat 
bay two days later. As it was found impracticable to obtain the 
necessary assistance from the Indians to continue the voyage to 
ley bay, whence the start inland was planned to be made. Cap- 
tain N. E. Nichols, the commander of the Pinta, concluded to 
take the exi)e(lition to its destination in his vessel. On July 17 
a landing was madi' through the surf at lev bay. anil exploration 
at once began. 

The ])arty consisted of Lieutenant Schwatka, in charge; Pro- 
fessor William Lilibev. Jr.; and Lietitenant H. W. Seton-Karr. 



PrevioKs Attcinpfi^ to Scale St. Elias. 73 

The camp hands were John Dalton, Josepli ^^^)0(ls, and several 
Indian packers.* 

From Icy bay the expedition proceeded inland, for about six- 
teen miles, in a line leading nearly due north, toward the summit 
of Mount 8t. Elias. The highest point reached, 7,200 feet, was 
on the foot-hills of the main range now called the Karr hills. 
The time occupied hy the expedition, after leaving Icy l)ay, was 
nine or ten days. So far as known, no systematic surveys were 
carried on. 

An interesting account of this expedition appeared in Seton- 
Karr's l)Ook, " The Shores and Alps of Alaska." Many olxserva- 
tions on the glaciers and moraines of the region explored are 
recorded in this work. The map })ublished with it has been 
used in comi)iling the w'estern portion of the map forming plate 
8, where the r(nite of the expedition is indicated. Another ac- 
count, es})ecially valualde for its records of scientific observations, 
by Professor libbey, was published l)y the American Geographic 
Society. The Guyot, Agassiz and Tyndall glaciers, the Chaix 
hills, and Lake Castani received their names during this expedi- 
tion. 

Lieutenant Schwatka's graphic and entertaining account of 
this expedition, published in The Centurjj Ma<j<izine for April, 
1891, gives many details of the exploration and illustrates many 
of the characteristic features of southern Alaska. 

TopiiAM Expedition, 1888. 

An expedition conducted by ^lessrs. W. H. and Edwin T(.)pham, 
of London, George Broka, of Brussels, and William AMlliams, 
of New York, was made in 1888. Like the TimcK expedition, it 
had for its main object the ascent of Mount St. Elias. 

Icy bay was reached, by means of canoes from Yakutat bay, 
on July 13, and an inland journey was made northward which 



* The accounts of this expedition arc as follows : Report from Lieutenant 
Schwatka in the New York Tunes, October 17, 1886 ; Some of the Geograph- 
ical Features of Southeastern Alaska, by William Libbey, Jr., in Bull. Am. 
Geog. Soc, 188(5, pp. 279-300 ; Shores and Alps of Alaska, by H. W. Seton 
Karr, London, 1887, 8°, pp. L-XCY, 142-148 ; The Alpine Regions of Alaska, 
by Lieutenant Seton-Karr, in Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc, vol. IX, 1887, pp. 2(59- 
285 ; The Expedition of " The New York Times " (188(5), by Lieutenant 
Schwatka, in The Centuri/ Magazine, April, 1891, pp. 865-872. 



74 J. ('. L'll.ssc/I — Expcditidii to Mini id St. Eliiix. 

covered a lar^e part of the area traversed hy the previous exjtedi- 
tion. Thehiirhest elevation reaelied, aeeordint:' to aneroid l)aroni- 
eter and hoilin^-pnint nicasui'cnients. was ll.KiO feet. This was 
on the sduthcrn side ot'St. Klias. 

'I'he only accounts of this cxpc(lilion which ha\'c coinc to niv 
notice are an interesting- article hy William Williams in Scrihncr^s 
Ma(/azh)r,^i\Ui\ a more detailed report hy II. W. Tophani,accom- 
j)anie(l hy ;i nia]»t and hy a line illustration of Mount St. Elias, 
in the Alpine .h)Ui"nal.;j: 

This lirit'f review of explorations carried on in the St. lOlias 
reirion previous to the expedition sent out in I^IK) hv tlu' Na- 
tional ( ieo<iraphic Society is incomplete in many j)articulars,i^ hut 
will indicate the most ])romisin<i sources of information concern- 
iuii the country desci'ihed in the l'ollowin<i' pauses. 

*^'ew York, April. 1SS<I, pp. ;!S7-40::. 

t Tujtluiiirs iiKi]) was used in conipiliiitr the western poi-tien of tlie map 
forniinir plate <S, and Ins route is there in<hcated. 

+ London. Au-rust, 1SS9, pp. lH.")-:',?!. 

i/ Yakntat l)ay has been visited by vessels of the Tnited States Navy and 
T'nited States Revenue ^Marine and by luunerons tradinjj: vessels ; but 
reports of o1)servations made dnrin,L:- these voyages have not lieen found 
dnrini;; a somewhat exhaustive seareli of literature relatin<i- to .\laska. 



NAT. GLOG. MAG. 



o 



I40130' 

^ T H W E 



VOL. Ill, 1891. PL. 8. 



LOQAN 









^ 









/ 



^ 



VjMBOuvcr 

,<ilKB*-' 






^4 










^ 



^ 



LEGEND 

Rouie of the NY. Times Expedition 1886 

Topham „ 1888 

Nat.Geog.Socy. ., 1890 

Camps .. „ O 

SCALC OF STATUTE MILES 

? ; * e a JO la J4 16 le to 






//Kn/g 1 V { \* 



y 



i ', .1 ,ci*ipp.„ _\ VMission 



> 



i'..Q«w.c..(' ^^ 



SKETCH MAP OF MOUNT ST. tLIAS RLGION, ALASKA 

By 
Mark B. V.^x\. 

Westeen part from maps by H . W.Seton-Karr and W.H. Topham 
•Coast line from U.S. Coast Survey. 



PART II. 
NARHATTVE OF T?IE ST. ELTAS EXPEDTTTOX OF ISflO. 

Organizatiox. 

A long-cherished desire to study the geography, geok)gy. and 
glaciers of the region around Blount St. Elias was finally gratified 
when, in the summer of ISDO, the Xational Oeograijhic Society 
made it })ossil)le for me to undertake an expedition to that part 
of Alaska. 

The expedition ^vas organized under the joint auspices of the 
Xational Geographic Society and the United States Oeological 
Survey, but was greatly assisted by individuals who felt an in- 
terest in the extension of geographic knowledge. For the ince})- 
tion of exploration and for securing the necessary funds, credit 
is due Mr. ^\mard D. Johnson. 

The names of those who sul)scribe(l to the exph)ration fund of 
the Society are as follows : 



Boynton Leach. 
Everett Hayden. 
Richardson Clover. 
C. M. McCarteney. 
C. A. Williams. 
Willard D. Johnson. 
Israel C. Russell. 
Gilbert Tliompson. 
Harry King. 
Morris Bien. 
Wm. B. PoweH. 
Z. T. Carpenter. 
C'harles Xordhoff. 



Henry Gannett. 

Charles J. Bell. 

J: S. Diller. 

J. W. Powell. 

J. G. Judd. 

A. Graham Bell. 

Gardiner G. Hul)))ard. 

A. W. Greely. 

J. W. I)ol>l)ins. 

.1. \V. Hays. 

Edmund Alton. 

Bailey Willis. 

E. S. Hosmer. 



Rogers Birnie, Jr. 

I was chosen by the Board of Managers of the Xational Geo- 
graphic Society and by the Director of the United States 
Geological Survey to take charge of the expedition and to carry 
on geological and glacial studies. Mr. Mark B. Kerr, topographer 
on the Geological Sur^•ey, was assigned as an assistant, with the 
duty of making a topographical map of the region ex^jlored. 

(75) 



7() /. (\ Rii.'<-se/l — Expediiion to Momil Sf. Ellas. 

]\[r. E. S. Hosiucr, (if W'nsliintitoii, I). ('.. voluntrcriMl his services 
as ^leneral assistant.'^' 

Mr. Kerr left ^Vas]lin,^t()n (Ml .May'Jl for Saii l''i'ancisc(i, wlicro 
he lua-lc aiTaiiL-'cments t'oi- liis sjiccial woi-k.and rc|)()rtc(l to nie 
at Soattk' on .June 1"). 1 Id't W'ashin.iitou on May 'In and went 
directly to Seattle, w liei'e llie necessary ])rei)arations for ex])lor- 
in;^- an nid^nown and isolated reiiion were made. 

From the large number of frontiersmen and sailors who applit'd 
for ])ositions on the expedition, seven men were selected as 
cam|> hands. The foreman of tliis foi'ce was .]. II. ( 'hristie, of 
Seattle, who had sjx'nt the previous winter in charge of an ex- 
])editi()n in the Olympian mountains, and was well versed in all 
that i)ertains to IVontier life. The otlKM' camp hands were J. IT. 
Ci'umhack, L. S. J)oney, W. L. Lindsley. William Partridge, 
Tliomas Staniy, and Thomas White. 

The indi\'idual memln'.rs of tlie pai'ty will he mentioned fre- 
qu(,'ntly during this narrative; hut I wish to state at the begin- 
ning that very much of the success of the enterprise was due to 
the hai'd and faithful W(_)rk of the cam]) hands, to each one of 
whom 1 feel personally indebted. 

Two dogs, " Bud " and '' Tweed," belonging to Mr. Christie, 
also became members of the expedition. 

All cam]) su|)plies, including tents, l)lankets, rations, etc., were 
])Ui'ehased at Seattle. Rations for ten n)en tor one hundred days, 
on the basis of the subsistence furnished by the United States 
(Geological Survey, were purchased and suitably ])acked for 
trans])ortati()n in a lunnid climate. Twcnty-tive tin cans were 
obtained, each measuring (> x 12 x 14 inches, and in each a mixed 
ration suHicient for one man for fifteen days Avas packed and 
hermetically sealed. These rations, thus secured against moisture 
and in convenient shape for cai'rying on the back (or " ])aeking "), 
were for use above the tindx'i' line, whei'c cooking was ])ossible 
only by means of oil stoves. The remainder ol' the su])})lies, 
intended for use whei'e fuel for cam])-tires could be obtained, 
were secured either in tin cans or in canvas sacks. 

For cooking above timber line, two double-wick oil stoves were 
jirovitled, the usual cast-iron l)ases l)eing rei)laced by smaller 
reservoirs of tin, in order to avoid unnecessary weight. Coal oil 
was carried in five-gallon cans, but a few rectangular cans hold- 



*C()i)ies of ill! instructions L'ovcniini:- the work of Ihc cxpciUtion are 
given in Appendix A. 



The Outfit. ' 77 

ing one gallon each were provided for use while on the marcli. 
Subsequent experience i)roved that this arrangement was satis- 
factory. 

Four seven-l)y-seven tents, witli ridge rojoes, and two pyram- 
idal nine-by-nine center-pole tents, with flies, were provided, 
all made of cotton drilling. The smaller tents were for use in 
the higher camps, and the larger ones for the l)ase camps. The 
tents were as light as seemed practicable, and were found to 
answer well the purpose for which they were intended. 

Each man was svipplied with one double Hudson Bay blanket, 
a water-proof coat, a water-proof liat (the most serviceable lieing 
the " sou'westers " used by seamen), and an alpenstock.* Each 
man also carried a sheet made of light duck, seven feet square, 
to protect his Idankets and to be used as a shelter-tent if re- 
quired. Each member of the party was also required to have 
heavy boots or shoes, and suitaljle woolen clothing. Each man 
was furnished with two pieces of hemp " cod-line," 50 feet in 
length, to be used in packing blankets and rations. The lines 
were doubled many times, so as to distribute the weight on the 
shoulders, and were connected with two leather straps for buck- 
ling about the package to be carried. The cod-lines were used 
instead of ordinary pack-straps, for the reason that they dis- 
tribute the weight on the shoulder over a broader area, and also 
because they can be made immediately availalde for climl)ing, 
crossing streams, etc., when required. Several extra lines of the 
same material were also taken as a reserve, or to be used in 
roping the party together when necessar3\ Several of the party 
carried rifles, for each of which a hundred rounds of fixed am- 
munition were issued. Two ice-axes for the party were also 
provided. 

A can^-as boat was made by the men while en route for the 
field, l)ut there was no occasion to use it, except as a cover for a 
cache left at one of the earlier camps. Subsequent experience 
showed that snow-shoes and one or two sleds would have been 
serviceable ; but these were not taken. 

Our instruments were furnished by the United States Geo- 
logical Survey. The list included one transit, one gradienter, 
one sextant, two prismatic compasses, one compass clinometer, 

* Light rubl)er cloth was ordered from San Francisco for the purpose of 
allowing each man a water-proof sheet to place under his blankets, but was 
not received in time to be used. 

1-2— Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. HI, 1801. 



78 /. ('. I*ii.s.<^(!/ — Krpeditittn to Momif Sf. Ellas. 

Wmv ]i(>ckct tlirniKiiiiclci-s, Iwn iisycln'omctcvs. one lield-glasH, 
two iiici'cui'ial liaroniL'tcTs, tlirrc aneroids, steel ta])e-]inc8, and 
two ])lioto,i:ra])liic outfits. 

I''i;(i.\i Si:A'r'i'Li': to Sti'ka. 

I'reparatioiis liavinu l>t'en coiupleted. tlie expeflitioii sailed 
i'roiii SeattK' June !(>, on the sti'auier ()ii(<ii, liejonuinsi' to the 
Pacific Coast Steaniship (\»ni]iany, in coniiiiand ot Captain 
.lames Cari'oll, and reaclu'd Sitka on the niorninu' oi' .lune '24. 
'I'liis poi'tion of our voyage was through the justly ceh'hrated 
'"inland passage;" of British Colunifia and southeastern Alaska, 
and was in every way deliglitl'ul. We touche(l at Victoria and 
Wrangell, and, after threading the W'rangell narrows, entered 
Frederick sound, where the first floating ice was seen. The 
bergs were from a neigld)oring glacier, which enters the sea at 
the lu'ad of a deep • inlet, too far away to he seen from the 
course followed hy the (^iiecii. The route northward led through 
Steplu'us passage, and afforded glim]tses of glaciers both on the 
mainland and on Admiralty island. In Taku inlet several hours 
were s[)ent in exanuning the glaciers, two of whicli eome down 
to the sea. One on the western side of the fjord, an ice-stream 
known as the Norris glacier, deseends through a deej) valley and 
expands into a broad ice-foot on ap])roaching the Avater, though 
it is not washed hy the waves, owing to an accumulation of mud 
about its extremity. Another iee-streani is the Taku glacier, 
situated at the head of the inlet. It comes boldly down to the 
water, and ends in a splendid sea-cliU'of azure blue, some 250 
feet high. The adjacent waters aw covered with icebergs shed 
by the glacier. Some of the smaller fragments were hoisted on 
hoard the (^nccn foi" table use'. The hold, rocky shores of the 
iidet are neai'ly bare of vegetation, and indicate hy their ])olished 
and striated surfaces that glaciers ol' far greatei- magnitude than 
those now existing formerly Howed through this channel. 

After leaving Taku inlet, a day was sp<Mit at Juneau ; ami 
then the (^iiecn steanie(l up Lyim canal to Pyramid hai'hor. near 
its head. For pictures({ue heauty, this is i)robahly the finest of 
the fjords of Alaska. Several glaciers on each side of the inlet 
come down nearly to the sea, and all the highei' mountains ai'e 
buried beneath perpetual snow. < )n returning from Lynn canal, 
the Qiii't'ii visited (rlacier bay, and here passengers were allowed 
a few hours on shore at tln' Muii' ulacier. The dav of our visit 



77/r Minr ahicirr. 79 

was unusually fine, and a splendid view of the ji;reat ice-stream 
with its many tributaries was obtained from a hill-top about a 
thousand feet high, on its eastern l^order. The glacier discharges 
into the head of the bay and forms * magnificent line of ice- 
cliffs over two hundred feet high and three miles in extent. 

This portion of the coast of Alaska has Ijeen descril)ed l)y 
several writers ; yet its bleak shores are still in large part unex- 
plored. To the west of the bay rise the magnificent peaks of 
the Fairweather range, from which flow many great ice-streams. 
The largest of the glaciers descending from these mountains into 
Glacier bay is called the Pacific glacier. Like the Muir glacier, 
it discharges vast numl^ers of icebergs into the sea. 

The day after leaving Glacier bay we arrived at Sitka, and as 
soon as practicable called on Lieutenant-Commander 0. F. 
Farenholt, of the U. S. S. Pinta, who had jireviously received 
instructions from the Secretary of the Navy to take us to Yakutak 
bay. We also paid our respects to the (lovcrnor and other 
Alaskan officials, and made a few final prcparaticjns for the start 
westward. 

From Sitka to Yakutat Hay. 

All of our effects having been transferred to the Piiifii, we jRit 
to sea early on the morning of June 25. 

Honoralile Lyman E. Kna})i), Governor of Alaska, taking 
advantage of the sailing of the Piiita, accompanied us on the 
voyage. Mr. Henry Boursin, census enumerator, also joined us 
for the purpose of obtaining information concerning the Indians 
at Yakutak. 

The morning we left Sitka was misty, with occasional showers ; 
but even these unfavorable conditions (;ould not obscure the 
l)eauty of the wild, densely wooded shore along which we steamed. 
The Aveather throughout the voyage was thick and foggy and the 
sea rough. We anchored in De Monti bay, the first indentation 
on the eastern shore of Yakutat liay, late the following afternoon, 
without having obtained so much as a glimpse of the magnifi- 
cent scenery of the rugged Fairweather range. 

At "S^akutat we found two small Indian villages, one on Khan- 
taak island and the other on the mainland to the eastward (l>oth 
shown on ])late S). The village on Khantaak island is the older 
of the two, and consists of six houses built along the water's 
edge. The houses are made of ])lanks, each hewn from a single 



so T. ('. Jhii^.'^rfJ—ExprrJifion to }[(,iti,i Sf. EUaa. 

l()<i", after tlic inaiiner of the 'I'lilinkcts <:cncrally. Tlicy arc rect- 
angular, and have openings in the roofs, with wind guards, for 
the escape of smoke. The tires, around whioli the faniiUes 
gather, are huiU in the centers of the spaces helow. The houses 
are entered by means of oval openings, elevated two feet ahove 
the ground on ])latforms along their fronts. In the interior of 
each there is a rectangular space about twenty feet square sur- 
rounded hy raised platforms, the outer portions of which are 
shut oil' liy partitions and divided into smaller chambers. 

The canoes used at Yakutat are each hewn from a single 
spruce log, and are good exam])les of the boats in use throughout 
southern Alaska. They are of all sizes, from a small craft 
scarcely large enough to hold a single Indian to graceful boats 
forty or fifty feet in length and ca})able of carrying a ton of mer- 
chandiser with a dozen or more men. They have high, over- 
reaching stems and sterns, which give them a i»icturesque, 
gondola-like appearance. 

The village on the mainland is less ])icturesque, if such a term 
may l)e allowed, than the group of houses already described, 
hut it is of the same tyj)e. Xear at hand, along the shore to the 
southward, theiv are two log houses, one of which is used at 
present as a mission by Reverend Carl J. Hendriksen and his 
assistant, the other being o^'cupied as a trading post by Sitka 
mei'chants. 

The Yakutat Indians are the most westerly branch of the 
great Thlinket family which inhalnts all of southeastern .Maska 
and a i)ortion of British ('olund)ia. In intelligence they are 
above the average of Indians generally, and are of a much higher 
ty[)e than the native inhabitants of the older portion of the 
United States. They are quick to learn the ways of the white 
man, and are especially shrewd in bargaining. They are canoe 
Indians par excellence, and pass a large part of tlu'ir lives on the 
water in quest of salmon, seals, and sea-otter. During the sum- 
mer of our visit, al)out thirty sea-otter were taken. They are 
usually shot in the })riniitive manner with copi)er-])ointed arrows, 
although re))eating rifles of the most improved i)atterns are 
owned by the natives, in spite of existing laws against selling 
bret'ch-loadiiig arms to Indians. The fur of the sea-otter is 
acknowledged to be the most beautiful, and is the most highly 
])rized of all })elts. Those taken at Yakutat dm-ing our visit 
were sold at an average ])rice of about seventy-five dollars. This, 



The YdhiUit Indians. 81 

together with the sale of less valual)le skms and the money 
received for haskets, etc., made l)y the Avomen for the tourist 
trade in Sitka, brought a consideralde revenue to the village. 
Improvident, like nearly all Indians, the Yakutat villagers soon 
spend at the trading post the money earned in this way. 

The Yakutats belong without question to the Thlinket stock ; 
])ut visits from tribes farther westward, who travel in skin boats, 
are known to have l)een made, and it seems prol)al)le that some 
mixture of Thlinket and Innuit l)lood may occur in the natives 
at Yakutat. But if such admixture has occurred, the Innuit ele- 
ment is so small that it escapes the notice of one not skilled in 
ethnology. 

^^"e found Mr. Hendriksen most kind and oldiging, and are 
indebted to him for many favors and great assistance. Arrange- 
ments were made Avith liim for reading a base-l)arometer three 
times a day during July and August. He also assisted us l)y 
acting as an interpreter, and in hiring Indians and canoes. 

The Aveather continued thick and stormy after reaching Yaku- 
tat bay, and Captain Farenholt did not think it advisable to take 
his A^essel up the main inlet, Avhere many dangers Avere reported 
to exist. A canoe haA'ing been purchased from the trader and 
others hired from the Indians, a start Avas made from the head 
of Yakutat bay early on the morning of June 28, in company with 
tAvo of the Piiif(i''s boats loaded Avith sup])lies, under the com- 
mand of Ensign C. W. Jungen. 

Caxoe Trip t'p Yakutat Bay. 

Bidding g()od-])ye to our friends on the Piota, to Avhom Ave were 
indel)ted for many favors, Ave started for our ix\\) up the l)ay in 
a pouring rain-storm. Our Avay at tirst led through the narrow, 
jilacid Avater-Avays diAdding the islands on the eastern side of tlie 
bay. The islands and the shores of the mainland are densely 
wooded, and appeared picturesque and inviting even through 
the A'eil of mist and rain that shrouded tliem. Tlic forests con- 
sist principally of spruce trees, so dense and having such a tangle 
of underbrush that it is only Avith the greatest difficulty that one 
can force a Avay througli them ; Avhile the ground beneath the 
forest, and even the ti'unks and l)ranches of the living trees, are 
covered and festooned Avith luxuriant growtlis of mosses and 
licliens. Our trij) along these Avooded shores, Init half revealed 



82 /. ('. Hn.ssc// — Expedite III 1<> Mount St. FJirii^. 

throuu-h tlu' (Irit'tiii'i mist, wa-; iidvcI and cnjoyal)!!' in s|»ite of 
discomforts due to tlii' rain. W'v rcjuiccd at the tlioimlit that 
we were nearinL>- the place where tlie actnal hihi>i-s oftlie I'xpedi- 
tion wiudd he^in : we were a])i)roaehin'i the unknown : visions 
of nnexplored regions tilled with new wonder.s oecui)ied our 
fancies, and made us ea^cr to press on. 

Ahout noon on the tirst day we ])it<'hed our tents on a strip of 
slTumle skirtinu' the shore of the mainland to the east of Kuiuht 
island. The Piiifii\s hoats spread Iheir white win,u;s and sailed 
away to the southward hefore a fre.-iihenini>; wind, and our last 
connection with civilization was hroken. As one of the frontiers- 
men of our party remarked, we were "at home once more." It 
may appear strange to sonic that any one coidd a])})ly such a 
term to a camp on the wild shore of an unexplored eonutry ; hut 
the Bohemian spirit is sostronii' in some hreasts, and the restraint 
of civilization so irksome, that the homing instinct is reversed 
and k'ads irresistil)ly to the wilderness and to the silent moun- 
tain tops. 

'J'he morning alter arriving- at our first camp, Kerr, Christie, 
and Ilenilriksen, with all the camp hands except two. went on 
with the canoes, and in a few houi's reached the entrance of Dis- 
enehantnu'Ut hay. They found a camping place ahout tAvelve 
miles ahead, on a narrow strip of shingle beneath the ]ireeipices 
of Point Es))eranza, and there established our second camp. 

My necessary delay at Camp 1 was utilized, so far as ])ossil)le, 
in learning what 1 covdd concei'ning the adjacent country, and 
in making a l)eginning in the study of its geology. Our cam]) 
was at the immediate base of the mountains, and on the north- 
eastern side of the wide platea\i bordering the continent. The 
])lateau stretches southeastward for twenty or thirty nule.s, and 
is low and heavily forested. The eastern shore of the bay near 
our tirst camp is Ibrmed of bluffs about loO feet high, which 
have been eaten l)aek l)y the waves so as to ex})ose tine sections 
of the strata of sand, gravel and bowlders of wdiieh the plateau 
is composed. .Ml the lowlands l»ordering the mountains have, 
ai)pai-ently, a connnon histoiy, and doubtless owe their origin 
jM'incipally to the deposition of debris brought from the moun- 
tains by former glaciers. When this material was deposited, or 
soon afterward, the land was de)»ressed about 150 feet lower 
than at ])resent, as is shown by a terrace cut along the base of 
the mountains at that elevation. The steep mountain face ex- 



Ow' First Camp. 83 

tending northwestward from Camp 1 to the month of Disen- 
chantment bay bears evidence of being the upheaved side of a 
fault of quite recent arigin. The steep incHnation and shattered 
condition of the rocks along this line are evidently due to the 
crushing which accompanied the displacement. 

In the wild gorge above our first camp, a small glacier was 
found descending to within 5(M) feet of the sea-level, and giving 
rise to a wild, roaring stream of milky water. Etforts to reacli 
the glacier were frustrated l)y the density of the dri})})ing x'cgeta- 
tion and liy the clouds that obscured the mountains. 

A canoe trip Avas made to a rocky islet lietween Knight island 
and the mainland toward the north. The islet, like the rocks 
in the adjacent mountain range, is composed of sandstone, 
greatly shattered and seamed, and nearly vertical in attitude. 
Its surface was densely carpeted with grass and Ijrilliant flowers. 
Many sea birds had their homes there. From its summit a fine 
view was obtained of the cloud-capped mountains toward the 
northeast, of the dark forest covering Knight island, and of the 
broad plateau toward the southeast. Some of the most charm- 
ing elfects in the scenery of the forest-clad and mist-covered shores 
of Alaska are due to the wreaths of vapor ascending from the 
deep forests during the interval in which the warm sunlight 
shines through the clouds ; and on the day of our visit to the 
islet, the forests, when not concealed l)y mist, sent up smoke-like 
vapor wreaths of many fantastic shapes to mingle with the clouds 
in Avhich the higher mountains disappeared. 

At Cam}) 1 the personnel of the party was unexpectedly re- 
duced. ]\Ir. Hosmer Avas ill, and remained Avith me at cam]) 
instead of i)ushing on Avith Kerr and Christie ; and the Aveather 
continuing stormy, he concluded to aljandon the expedition and 
return to the mission at Port Mulgrave. Having secured the 
services of an Indian Avho chanced to pass our camp in his canoe, 
Mr. Hosmer ]»ade us g()od-V)ye, ensconced himself in the frail 
craft, and started for sunnier lands. It Avas suljsequently learned 
that he reached Yakutak Avithout mishap, and a few days later 
sailed for Sitka in a small trading schooner. Our force during 
the remainder of the season, not including Mr. Hendriksen and 
the Indians, whose services Avere engaged for only a fcAV daySj 
numbered nine men all told. 

On the evening of June oO wc liad a briglit (•am])-firc l)lazing 
on the beach to Avelcome the returning jiarty. Near sunset a 



84 7. ('. nu><>«U — pyjirdifion In Mount St. Elirift. 

canoo ai-pcnrcd in tlie ditstance, and a sliot was fired as it came 
rduiid a liciid in tlic slioi'o. A\\> felt sure that our eom]»aiii()ns 
wci'c iTturniiiiz, and piled drilt-wond on the roaring eani])-lire to 
clicri- tlicni after their liard day's woi-k on the water. As the 
canoe a|i|)roaclie(h each dip of the padcUe sent a liasli of light to 
us, and we could distinguish the men at tlieii' work : Imt we soon 
discovered that it was oceupietl not hy our own party l>ut l>y 
Indiaiis returning from a seal hunt in Disenchantment hay. 
'I'licy hrouglit theii' canoe high on the heach, an<l made them- 
selves at home ahout our cani])-fire. There wci'e seven or eight 
wcll-huilt young men in th(> )iarty. all armed with guns. In 
former times such an arri\al \vould have l)een regarch'd with 
susj)ici()n ; l)ut thanks to the somewhat frequent visits of war 
vessels to Yakutat. and also to the lahors of missionaries, the 
wild spii'its of the Indians have heen greatly suhdued and re- 
duced to semi-civilized condition during the ]»ast (juartcr of a 
century. 

Just as the long twilight deepened into night, another craft 
came around the distant headland, hut less swiftly than the 
former one ; and soon t)ur ])icturesque canoe, with Christie at the 
stern steering with a paddle in true Indian fashion, grated on 
the shingle l)each. Christie has spent many years of his life 
with the Indians of the Northwest, and has adopted some of their 
hahits. On heginning frontier life once more, he discarded the 
hat of the white man, and wore a blue cloth tied tightly an)un(l 
his forehead and streaming otf in loose ends hehind. The change 
was welcome, foi- it added to the i)ictui'cs(|Ue ai)})earance of the 
l)arty. 

The nu'U, weary with their long row against currents and 
head-winds, greatly enjoyed the cam])-fire. Our Indian visitors, 
after lunching lightly on the leaf-stalks of a ])lant resemhling 
celery {ArchangeUai)^ which gi"ows abundantly everywhere on 
the lowlands of southern Alaska, departetl toward ^'akutat. 
Su])per was served in one of the large tents, and wc all I'olled 
ourselves in oui- blankets for the night. 

The next day, July 1, we al)andoned Camp 1, i)asse(l ))y Canq) 
2, and late in the afternoon reached tlie northwestern side of 
Vakutat hay, opposite Point Esperanza. Our tri[» along the wild 
shore, against whieli a heavy surf was breaking, was full of nov- 
elty and interest. The mountains rose sheer I'roui the water to 
a height of two or three thousand feet. .Vliout their l)ases, like 



Landing Amid Icebergs. 85 

dark drapery, following all the folds of the mountain side, ran a 
liand of vegetation ; Init the spruce forests had mostly disap- 
peared, and only a few trees were seen here and there in the 
deej^cr canons. Tlie position of the terrace along the base of the 
mountain, first noticed at Camp 1, could be plainly traced, 
although densely covered with 1)Iis]k'S. The mountain peaks 
above were all sharp and angular, indicating at a glance that 
they had never been subjected to glacial action. The sandstone 
and shales forming the naked cliffs are fractured and crushed, 
and are evidently yielding ra])idly to the weather; but the char- 
acteristic red color due to rock decay could not be seen. The 
prevailing tone of the mountains, when not buried l>eneath 
vegetation or covered with snow, is a cold gray. Bright, warm, 
summer skies are needed to reveal the variety and beauty of 
that forbidding region. 

Our large canoe behaved well, although heavily loaded. Some- 
times the wind was favorable, when an extemporized sail lessened 
the fatigue of the trip. The landing on the northwestern shore 
was effected, through a light surf, on a sandy beach heavily en- 
cumbered with icebergs. As it was hazardous to beach the large 
canoe with its load of boxes and bags, the heavy freight was 
transferred, a few pieces at a time, to smaller canoes, each manned 
by a single Indian, and all was safely landed beyond the reach 
of the breakers. Camp 8 was established on the sandy beach 
just al)Ove the reach of the tide and near the mouth of a roaring 
brook. The drift-wood along the shore furnished almndant fuel 
for a blazing cam})-fire ; our tents were }jitched, and once more 
we felt at home. 

Two canoes were dispatched, in care of Doney, to the camp on 
the opposite shore (C!amp 2), with instructions to bring over the 
equipments left there. Kerr went over also for the })urpose of 
making a topographic station on the bluff forming Point P]spe- 
ranza should. the morrow's weather permit. 

It was curious to note the care which our Indians took of their 
canoes. Not only were they drawn high up on the beach, out 
of the reach of all possible tides, but each canoe was swathed in 
wet cloths, especially at the prow and stern, to prevent them from 
drying and cracking. The canoes, being fashioned from a single 
spruce log, are especially liable to split if alhnved to dry thor- 
oughly. 

The day after our arrival, all of our party and all of our camp 

13— Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. Ill, 1891. 



8() /. (\ Hnxsr// — Exi>(lilii>n fn }f(>iiiif SI. l-^lds. 

i»utlit were :iss('iul>l<'(l ;it Cniiiii •">. Mr. I Iciiili'icksrn ami ouv 
Indian iVicnds tonk their dcpartufc. and the work for wlilcli \vc 
had conic so I'ar was ai-tnally l)c,uun. 

l>Asi'. Cami' O.N I'lii-: SiiiiiM-; of ^'aktiwi' I'>av. 



Al)ont tlu' ti'uts at Canij) '■'> the rank grass {ircw \vaist-l)ijili, 
slu'ltcrinu' tlic straw! X'rrics and dwai'l" i'as))l)erri('s that l»h)oin('d 
IxMU'ath. A'Httlc way hack iVoni the shore, chnnps ol'alch'rs. in- 
tci'spersed with S])ruce trees, marked the hei>;innin,ii- of the I'orest 
whicli covered the hills toward the west and southwest. Toward 
the nortli rose ruti'u'cd mountains, their sunnuits slirouch'd in 
mist; in the steej) <i'or!j:es on their sides tlie ends of ulaciers 
gleamed white, like t'oaniing cataracts descending from cloudland. 

Tlu' (lav following oui' ari-ival dawned hright and heautil'ul. 
Everv cloud vanished from the momitains as hy magic, i-evcal- 
ing their magnificent sunnuits in clear relief. We t'ound our- 
selves at the hase of a rugged mountain range extending far 
southeastward and northwestward, its Mi'st I'ampai-f so l)i-cachcd 
as to allow the waters of the ocean to extend into the very midst 
of the gi'eat ]ieaks heyond. Through this opening we had a 
s]ilendid view of the snow-clad uiountains filling the noi'thcrn 
sky and strt'tching away in lessening ])crsi»ective toward the 
east until they hlendcnl with the distant clouds. 

Toi)Ograi)hic work was started, and the i)rei)aration of " ])acks" 
tor the journey iidand was hegun at once: and all hands were 
kept husy. A l)ase-line was measured hy Mr. Kerr, and a he- 
gimiing was made in the developnu'nt ol" a system of triangu- 
lation which was cai'i'ied on throughout the season. 

Our stay at the camj) on the shore extended over a week, and 
enahled us to hecouu' fanuliar with many of the changes in the 
rugged scenery sui'i'ounding ^'akutat hay. The hay itself was 
covered with icehergs for most (»f the time. ()\\ing to the i)re- 
vailing winds and the action of shoi'c cm'rents, the ice accumu- 
lated on the coast adjacent to our camp. I'^ir many days the 
heach toward hotli the north and the south, as far as the eye 
could reach, was piled high \\\\\\ liuiic masses of hlnc and white 
ice. When the hay was i-ough. the suiT roare(l augi'ily among 
the stranded hergs and, dashing ovci' them, formed splendid 
sheets of foi'm : while on hright, sunny days the hay gleameil 
and Hashed in the sunlight as tlu' summer winds iicntlv rippled 



ScriK's of Tirl/i(/Iif Ifonrx. 87 

its suvtkct', and tlie thoiisaiids of iccl)cr,iiS crowdin.Li' the azure 
plain seemed a numberless tiect of fairy l)()ats with crystal liulls 
and fantastic sails of hlue and white. Wlien the long summer 
days drew to a close and gave place to the soft northern twilight, 
which in summer lasts until the glow of the returning sun is 
seen in the east, the sea and mountains assumed a soft, myste- 
rious l)eauty never realized by dwellers in more southern climes. 
The hours of twilight were so enchanting, the vaiying shades 
and changing tints on the mighty snow-fields robing the moun- 
tains were so exquisite in their gradations that, even when weary 
with many hours of toil, the explorer could not resist the charm, 
and paced the sandy shore until the night was far spent. Some- 
times in the twilight hours, long after the sun disapjieared, the 
summits of the majestic peaks toward the east Avere transformed 
l)y the light of the after-glow into mountains of flame. iVs the 
light faded, the cold shadow of the world crept higher and higher 
up the crystal slopes until only the topmost s]i)ires and pinnacles 
were gilded by the sunset glow. At such times, when our eyes 
were weary with watching the gorgeous transformation of the 
S)iow-covered mountains and were turned to the far-reaching 
seaward view, we would be startled by the sight of a vast city, 
with l)attlements, towers, minarets, and domes of fantastic 
architecture, rising where we knew that only the berg-covered 
waters extended. The appearance oi^these i)hantom cities was a 
common occurrence during the twilight hours. Altliough we 
kne^v at once that the ghostly si)ires Mere but a trick c)f the 
nurage, yet their ever-changing shapes and -remarkable mimicry 
of human hal)itations were so striking that they never lost their 
novelty ; and they were never the same on two successive even- 
ings. One of the most common deceptions of the mirage is the 
transformation of icebergs into the semblance of fountains gush- 
ing from the sea and expanding into graceful, sheaf-like shapes. 
The strangest freaks due to the refraction of light on hot deserts, 
which are usually supposed to be the home of the mirage, do 
not excite the traveler's Avonder so much as the })hantom cities 
seen in the uncertain twilight amid the ice-packs of the north. 

When the slowly deepening twilight transformed mountains 
and seas into a dreamland picture, the harvest moon, strangely 
out of place in far northern skies, spread a sheet of silver behind 
the dark headlands toward the southeast, and then slowly 
ai)i)eared, not rising boldly toward the zenith, but tracing a, low 



88 7. C. Hiissell — K.rprrJifion to Moinil Sf. KI'kix. 

iircli in the soutlicrn lu-avcns, to soon (lisajipcar into tlie sea 
toward tlu' southwest. Brief as were her visits, they were always 
welcome and always Ijrouuht the feeliiiii; that distant homes were 
nearer when the same liu'ht was visihle to us and to lovt'd ones 
far away. The soft moonlight dinnned the twilight, the after- 
glow faded from the highest })eaks, and the short northern night 
came on. 

After i-eturning from the mountains, late in Sei)tend)er, we were 
again encamped on tlu' northwestern shore of Yakutat hay. A 
heavy northeast storm swept down from the mountains and 
awakened all the i)ent-up fury of the waves. The heaeh Avas 
crowded with l)ergs, among which the surf l)roke in great sheets 
of feathery foam ; clouds of sj)ray were dashed far al)Ove tlu' icy 
ramparts, carrying with them fragments of ice torn from the 
bergs over which tliey swept; while the stranded hergs rocked 
violently to and fro as the waves hur.st over them. Sometimes 
the raging waters, angered hy o[)position, lifted the hergs in their 
mighty arms and, turning them over and over, dashed them 
high on the beach. It seemed as if s])irits of the deep, unable 
to leave the water-world, were hurling their wea])ons at unseen 
enemies on the land. The fearful grandeur of the raging waters 
and of the dark storm-swept skies was, i)erha])s, enhanced by the 
fact that the landward-blowing gale, com1)ined with a rising- 
tide, threatened to sweei),away our frail liome. lilach succeeding 
■\vave, as it rolled shoreward, sent a sheet of foam roaring and 
rushing U|» the lieach and creeping nearer and nearer to our 
shelter until only a few inches intervened between the high- 
water line and the crest of the sand bank that ])rotectefl us. The 
limit was reached at last, however, and the water slowly re- 
treated, leaving a fringe ol' ice witliin arm's length of oui- tents. 

The Avild scene along the shore was espec-ially grand at night. 
• The stranded bergs, seen through the gloom, formed strange 
moving shapes, like vessels in distress. The white banners of 
spray seemed signals of disaster. An Armada, more numerous 
than ever sailed i'rom the ports of Spain, was l)eing crushed and 
ground to pieces by the hoarse wind and raging surf. Slecj) was 
impossible, even if one cared to rest when sea and air and sky 
were joine(l in (iei'ce conllict. Our tents, spared by the waves, 
were dashed down by the tierce north winds, and a lake in the 
forest toward the west overflowed its banks and discliarged its 
flooding waters through our encampment. At last, tire<l and 



J^cr/efafioii on Liriin/ (ilaeiers. 89 

discoinforted, we altandoned our tents and retreated to the neigh- 
boring- forest and tliere took refuge in a cal)in built near where 
a coal seam outcrops, and remained until the storm had spent 
its force. But I have anticipated, and must return to the thread 
of my narrative. 

First Day's Tramp. 

The impressions received during the tirst day s])ent on shore 
in a new country are always long remembered. Of several " first 
days " in my own calendar, there are none that exceed in interest 
my first excursions through the forest and over the hills west of 
Yakutat bay. 

Every one ahout camp having plenty of work to occujiy him 
through the day, T started out early on the morning of July 2, 
with only '• ]^ud " and " Tweed " for com])anions. My objects 
were to reconnoiter the country to th'e westward, to learn what I 
could concerning its geology and glaciers, and to choose a line of 
march toward Blount St. Elias. 

To the north of our cam}>, and about a mile distant, rose a 
densely wooded hill about 300 feet high, with a curving outline, 
convex southward. This hill had excited my curiosity on first 
catching sight of the shore, and I decided to make it my first 
study. Its ])ositidn at the mouth of a steep gorge in the hills 
beyond, down which a small glacier fiowed, suggested that it 
might l)e an ancient moraine, (lei)osited at a time when the ice- 
stream advanced farther than at i)r^^sent. IVIy surprise therefore 
was great when, after forcing my way through the dense thickets, 
I reached the top of the hill, and found a large kettle-shaped de- 
pression, the sides of wbich were solid walls of ice fifty feet higli. 
This showed at once that the suj)])osed hill was really the ex- 
tremity of a glacier, long dead and dee])ly buried beneath forest- 
covered (le])ris. In tbe bottom of the kettle-like depression lay 
a pond of muddy water, and, as the ice-clitts about the lakelet 
melted in the warm sunlight, miniature avalanches of ice and 
stones, mingled with sticks and l)ushcs that bad been under- 
mined, frequently rattled down its sides aitd si>lashed into the 
Avaters V)elow. Further examination revealed tlie fact that scores 
of such kettles are scattered over the surface of the l)uried glacier. 
This ice-stream is that designated the (hilhirin (/lurirr on the ac- 
comi)anying map. 

Continuing on mv wav toward the mouth of the gorge in the 



00 /. ('. f!ns.s(// — ExjHililiiHi Id Moil 1,1 SI. FJ'kis. 

jiiountains nlii)\c. 1 forccil my way Inr nearly a mile tlirouirli 
dense thickets. l'iHM|uently niakintz' wide detours to avoid tlie 
kettle holes. .\t lonu'th the vegetation hecanie le-^s dense, and 
gave place to hi'oad open fields of rocks and dirt. coverinLi' the 
glaci(M" tVom side to side. This (h'hi-is was clcai'ly of the nature 
of a moraine, as the ice cotdd lie seen heneath il in mnnerous 
erevasses ; hut no division into niari^inal oi" medial moraines 
could be distin!j,uished. It is i-eally a thin, irre^idar sheet of 
eonnniinited rock, together \vith angular inas.ses of sand.stono 
and shale, the larucst of which are ten or fifteen feet in diameter. 
When seen from a litth' dist;'.nce the debris com]>letely conceals 
tlu^ ic(> and tbnns a harren. ru'iged surface, the picture of desola- 
tion. 

After ti'aversinu' this naked area the dear ice in the center of 
the uor^-e was reached. All ahout were wild (difVs, strt'tchintr up 
toward the snow-covered ])eaks above; several cataracts of ice. 
fornu'd by tributary u'laciers descendinu' throtiudi ru^'ed. highly 
incline(l channels, were in si^ht : while the snow-fields far above 
jrleanu'd brilliantly in the sunlight, and now and then sent down 
small avalanches to awaken the echoes of the cliffs and fill the 
still air with a ilahel of tongues. 

Pushing on toward the western border of the glacier, across 
the harren field of stones, I came at length to the bi'ink of a 
precipice of dii'tv ic<' more than a hundred feet high, at the toot 
of which IIowcmI a swift stream of turhid water. A few hundred 
yards hclow. this stream suddenly disa.ppeared heneath an ai'ch- 
way fornu'd by the end of a glacial tiunicl. and its further course 
was lost to view. It was a strange sight to see a swift, foanung 
ri\-er hui'st from beneath overhanging ice-cliffs, roar along over a 
howlder-covei-ed bed, and then phinge into the mouth of a cavern, 
leaving no trace of its lowei' course except a dull, heavy rum- 
bling fai' down below the icy surface. A still grander example 
of these glacial streams, observed a few days latei', is (lescrii)ed 
on another ])age. 

The bank of the gulf opposite the point at which I first reache(l 
it is formed by a steep mountain-side su])porting a dense growth 
of vegetation. Here and there, however, streams of water ])lung(; 
down the slope, making a chain of foaming cascades, and o])en- 
ing the way through the vegetation. It seemed ])ractieahle to 
traverse one of these stream lieds without great diflficu.ltv, and 
thus to reacli the plateau which I knew, from a more distant 
view, to exist above. 



Fivf^i Vinr of St. FJim. 91 

Crossing tlie glacial river al)Ovc the U})per arelnvay, T reached 
the mountain side and began to ascend. The task was far more 
difficult than anticii>ated. The hushes, principally of alder and 
currant, grew dense and extended their branches down the steep 
sloi)e in such a manner that at times it was utterly im])ossible to 
force a way through them. Much of the way I crawled du hands 
and knees up the steep watercourse beneath tlie dense tangle of 
vegetation overhanging from either l)ank and interlacing in the 
center. On neariilg the top 1 was so fortunate as to strike a 
l)ear trail, along which the animal had forced his way through 
the bushes, making an ()])ening like a tunnel. Througli this 1 
ascended to the to}) of the slope, coming out in a wild amphi- 
theatre in the side of the mountain. The bottom of the ami)hi- 
theatre was exceedingly rough, owing to confused moraine-heaps, 
and held a number of small lakes. On account of its elevation, it 
was not densely covered with 1)ushes, and no trees wcn-e in sight 
except along its southern margin. Al)out its northern l)order ran 
a 1)r()ad terrace, marking the height of the great glacier which 
formerly occupied the site of Yakutat bay. The terrace formed 
a convenient pathway leading westward to a sharp ridge run- 
ning out from the mountains and connecting with an outstand- 
ino- butte, whidi ])romised to afford an unol)structed view to the 
westward. 

Pressing on, I found that the terrace on which I was traveling 
at length became a free ridge, some three hundred feet high, with 
steep slopes on either side, like a huge railroad embankment. 
This ridge swept across the valle}^ in a graceful curve, and shut 
off a portion of the ^vestern part of the amphitheatre from the 
general drainage. In the })ortion thus isolated there Avas a lake 
without an outlet, still frozen. The snow l>anks bordering the 
frozen lake were traced in every direction l)y the trails of l^ears. 
Continuing my tramp, T crosseil Ijvoad snow-ftelds, cHml)ed the 
ridge to the westward, and obtained a far-reaching, unolistructed 
view of the surrounding country. The elevation reached was 
only aljout 1,500 feet above sea-level, luit was al)ove the timber 
line. The mountain slopes toward the north were bare of vege- 
tation and generally covered with snow. 

The first ol)ject to claim attention was the huge pyramid form- 
ing the sunnnit of Mount St. Elias, which stood out clear and 
sharp against the northwestern sky. Although thirty-six miles 
distant, it dominated all other ]jeaks in view and rose far above 



92 /. ('. J!>issr//—Krpr,!H!n,i fo Mi,iinf Sf. FJiofi. 

the ruirti'od crests (if nearer ran<ies, many of wliieli would have 
heen eountiMl niauiuficent mountains in a h'ss rutrtred land. This 
was thi' lirst view of the ^reat ])eak ((hlaincij hy any nt' n\\x |iai1y. 
Not a clDud ohsciircd tlic (h'linatioii nf the iiiountaiu : and the 
WDUih'rrul ti'ansiKircncy of the at iii(>s|iIutc, al'tci' so many days 
ol' mist and rain, was somethinu' si'ldom if ever e:|uallc(l in U-s.s 
humid lands. 

Much nearer than St. lOlias, and a little west of ni)i-tli of my 
station, rose Mount ('ook,t)ne of the most heautiful ]ieaks in the 
i-e^ion. Its sumunt, uidike the is(tlated |iyi-amid in which St. 
Klias terminates, is formed of three white domes, with here and 
there suhordinate pinnacles of pure white, shootinji up li-om the 
snow-iields like great crystals. On the southern side of Mount 
Cook there are several ruuged and au'iular ridt>es, which swee]) 
away i'or many nnles and ])roject like headlands into the sea of 
ice. known as the ^Talaspina alacier, hoi'deriuir the ocean to- 
war<l the southwest. Between the main ridiics there are huge 
trunk glaciers, each contrihuting its Hood of ice to the great 
glacier l)elow ; and each secondary valley and each anii)hitheatre 
among the peaks, no matter how small, has its individual glacier, 
and the majority of these are trilnitary to the larger ice-streams. 
All the mountains in sight exceeding •2,000 feet in elevation were 
white Avith snow, exce])t the shar])est ridges and boldest preci- 
pices. The attention of the geologist is attracted by the fact that 
all the foot-hills of Mount Cook are composed of gray sandstone 
and black shale ; and he also observes that the angular mountain 
crest so sharply drawn against the sky furnishes abundant evi- 
dence that the mountains were never subjected to the abrasion 
ol'a continuous ice-sheet. 

.\s 1 stood on thesteei)-slo])ed I'idge, the .\trevida and Lucia gla- 
ciers, their surfaces covered from side to side with angular masses 
of sandstone and shale, lay at my feet ; while farther up the valley 
the deliris on the surface of the ic(^ (lisapi)eared, and all above 
was a winter landscape. The brown, desolate dehris-tields on 
the glacier at my feet extended far southward, and covered tlu; 
ex))a.nded ice-foot in which the glacier ternnnates. Afost curious 
of all was the fact that the moraines on the lower l)order of the 
glacier were concealed from view by a dense covering of vegeta- 
tion, and in places were clothed with forests of si)ruce trees. 

To the southward, hevond the end of the bucia glacier, and 
separated from it liy a torrent-swept liowlder-lie<l, lay a vast 



Former Hcir/hf of the Ice-Flood *93 

plateau of ice which stretched toward the south and west farther 
than the eye conhl reach. This is the Malaspina ghicier, shown 
on ])late S. Its l)order8, Uke the expanded extremity of the 
Lucia glacier, are covered with debris, on tlie outer margins of 
which dense vegetation has taken root. All the central portion 
of the ice-sheet is clear of moraines, and shone in the sunlight, 
like a vast snow-field. The heights formerly reached by the 
nearer glaciers were plainly marked along the inountain sides 
by well-defined terraces, sloping with the ^jresent drainage. 
A\'hen the Lucia glacier was at its flood the ridge on which I 
stood was only 200 or 800 feet above its surface ; now it aj^proaches 
1,000 feet. 

Turning toward the southeast, I could look down upon the 
Avaters of Yakutat bay, with its thousands of floating icebergs, 
and could distinguish the white breakers as they rolled in on 
Ocean cape. Beyond Yakutat stretches a forest-covered plateau 
between the mountains and the sea, and the eye could range far 
over the mountains bordering this plateau on the northeast. In 
the distance, fully a hundred miles away, stood INIount Fair- 
weather, its position rendered conspicuous by a bank of shining 
clouds floating serenely above its cold summit. 

The mountains directly east of Yakutat bay rise to a general 
height of al)Out 8,000 feet, but are without especially prominent 
peaks. In a general way they form a rugged plateau, which has 
l)een dissected in various channels to depth of 2,000 or 8,000 feet. 
Nearly all of the plateau, including mountains and valleys, is 
covered with snow-fields and glaciers ; l)ut none of the ice-streams, 
so far as can l)e seen from a distance, descend l)elow an elevation 
of aliout 4,(}00 or 5,000 feet. This region is as yet untraversed ; 
and when the explorer enters it, it is quite possible that deep 
drainage lines will l)e found through which glaciers may descend 
nearly or quite to sea-level. 

After drinking in the eli'ect of the magnificent landscape and 
endeavoring to impress every detail in the rugged topography 
upon my memory, and having finished writing my notes, it was 
time to return ; for the sun was already declining toward the west. 
Wishing to see more of the wonderful land about me, I con- 
cluded to descend the western sloi)e of the ridge ui)on which I 
stood, and to return to camp by following a stream wliich issues 
from the Atrevida glacier directly l)eloAV my station and empties 
into Yakutat bay a mile or two south oi' our thii'd canq». 

11— Nat. Geoc;. Mag., vol. Ill, 18',)1. 



04 /. ('. Jtiissdl — Ex})edUi<))L to Mount >V. J'Jlia!^. 

Tlie qiiiektst and easiest way down was to slide on tlie snow. 
I'sinu- mv aljUMistock as a brakf. i descended swiftly several 
liundvecl tet't without dilliculty. tliecloLis l)oundin;^- alcniu' Ix'side 
me, when on looking up 1 was startle(l to see two lui<i-e l)rown 
hears on the same snow surtaee, a little to the left and not more 
than a hundred and fifty yards away. Had my slide heen con- 
tinued a few seconds more I should ha\'e heen in exeeedini:iy 
unwelcome eompany. 1 was nnarmed,an(l entirely unprepai'cd 
for a tiuht with two of the inost savage animals found in tiiis 
countrv. 'I'he l>ears had long yellowish-brown hair, and were of 
the size and cliaracter of tlie "grizzly," with which they are 
thought 1)V hunters, if not by naturalists, to l)e sjH'cilically iden- 
tical. They were not at all disturbed l)y my presence, and in 
spite of my shouts, wluch 1 thought would make them travel off, 
one of them came leisurely toward me. His striiU's ovei- tiie 
snow revealed a strength and activity connnanding achniration 
despite the decidedly \nicondbrta1)le feeling awakened by his 
proximity and evident curiosity. Later in the season I meas- 
ured the tracks of an animal of the same species, made while 
Avalking over a soft, level surface, and found eacli im})ression to 
measure 9 by 17 inches, and the stride to reach 64 inches. So 
far as I have been able to learn, this is the largest bear track that 
has been rei)orteil. Realizing my danger, I continued my snow- 
slide, l)ut in a diti'erent direction and with accelerated s})eed. 
The upi^er limit of the dense thicket clothing the slo})e of the 
mountain was soon reached, and my miwelcomc companions 
were lost to sight. 

Following the l)ed of a torrent fed by the snow-tields above, I 
soon came to the creek cliosen for my route back to cam]): the 
waters, brown- and turl)id with sediment, welled out of a cavern 
at the fot)t of an ice precipice 200 feet higli. and formed a roaring 
stream too dee)) and too swift for fording. The i-oaring of the 
brown waters and tlu; startling noises made l)y stones rattling 
down tlu' ice-clitf, together with the dark shadows of the deep 
gorge, walled in by a steep mountain slope on one side and a 
glaeier on the other, made the route seem uncanny. On the 
sands filling the spaces between the 1)owlders thei-e wei-e many 
fresh l)ear tracks, which at least suggested that the lielate(l trav- 
eler should be carel'ul in his movements. 

This locality was afterward occujiied as a cam]iing place, and 
is shown in the picturi' foi'miiiL;' plate 1". The dark-colored ice. 



Jh'lafal in the Forest. 95 

11)1x0(1 witli stones and earth, might easily be mistaken for strati- 
fied rock ; hut the dirt discoloring the ice is almost entirely suj^er- 
ficial. The crest of the cliff is formed of debris, and is the edge 
of the sheet of stones and earth covering the general surface of 
the glacier. Owing to the constant melting, stones and bowlders ' 
are continually loosened to rattle down the steep slope and plunge 
into the Avater beneath. 

I followed down the bank of the stream, by s})ringing from 
bowlder t(j l)owlder, for al)Out a mile, and then came to a steep 
l)luff, the western side of which was swept by the roaring flood. 
The banks aljove were clothed with spruce trees and dense under- 
brush ; l)Ut, there 1)eing no alternative, I entered the forest and 
slowly worked my way in the direction of cam}). To traverse 
the unbroken forests of southern Alaska is always difficult, even 
Avhen one is fresh ; and, wear}^ as I was with many hours of 
laborious climbing, my progress was slow indeed. One of the 
principal oljstacles encountered in threading these Arctic jungles 
is the plant known as the " Devil's club " (Panax horrldnm), which 
grows to a height of ten or fifteen feet, and has broad, palmate 
leaves that are especially conspicuous in autumn, owing to their 
bright yellow color. The stems of this plant run on the earth 
for several feet and then curve upward. Every portion of its 
surface, even to the ril)S of the leaves, is thickly set with spines, 
which inflict painful wounds, and, breaking off in the flesh, 
cause festering sores. In forcing a way through the brush one 
frequently treads on the i)rostrate }X)rtion of these thorny i)lants, 
and not infrequently is made aware of the fact by a lilow on the 
head or in the face from the over-arching stems. 

I struggled on througli the tangled vegetation until the sun 
Avent down and the woods became dark and somber. Thick 
moss, into Avhich the foot sank as in a bed of sponge, covered 
the ground everywhere t(i the depth of two or three feet ; each 
fallen trunk was a rounded mound of green and brown, decked 
Avith graceful equiseta and ferns, or brilliant Avith floAvers, but 
most treacherous and annoying to the Ijclatcd traveler. In the 
gloom of the dim-lit Avoods, the trees, bearded AA'ith moss, as- 
sumed strange, fantastic shapes, Avhich e\'ery unfamiliar sound 
seemed to start into life; while the numerous trails made by the 
bears in forcing their Avay through the thick tangle Averc posi- 
tive evidence that not all tlie inhabitants of the forest Avere crea- 
tures of the imagination. ]\Iv faithful comitanions, " Bud " and 



9(J /. C. liiissr/l — Krprtliflon lo Mount SI. K/ids. 

"Tweed" slidwcd sIli'Iis of wearine-is, and oM'ercd no oWicction 
when I stai'tcil n lire nnd. cxpres.sed my iii1<'nti<ni of s[)endin.!,- 
the niiiiit Ix-ncatli the widc-spreadiiiLi- liraiiclic-: iifn iiinss-coverod 
cvcriiTeen. llaxiiiu; a lew pieces of l)rea(l in my |)()ck(>t, I sliared 
tliem witli the do;j;s, and stretehinu- myseli'on a luxuriant bank 
of lichens tried to slec'it, only to tind the moscpiitoes so ener- 
getic; that there was no h()i)e of passing the niglit in comfort. 

After resting I felt" refre-ihed, and eonelude 1 to ])ress on 
tlirough the gathering dai-kness, and after another hour of liard 
work I came out of the forest and u])on :i Held of torrent-swe[it 
l)owlders, de])osited by the stream Avhich 1 liad left farther up. 
I was surprised to lind that tlie twilight was not so far spent as 
1 had fancied. Tlie way ahead l)eing free of vegetation, I has- 
tened on, and after traveling al)0ut two miles was rejoiced l)y tlie 
sight of a eamp-Hre blazing in the distance. The warm hre and 
a hearty supper soon made me forget the fatigues of the day. 

This, my first day's exi)loration, must stand as an example of 
many similar days sitent on the hills and in tlu' forests north- 
west of Yakutat bay, of which it is not necessary to give detailed 
descriptions. 

CaXOE ThII- I.N i)lSEX(MrA\TMKXT 1>AV. 

( )n July '■), I continued my examination of the region about 
the head of Yakutat bay by making a canoe trip U]) Disenchant- 
ment bay to Haenke island. With the assistance of Christie and 
Crumback, our canoe was launched through the surf without 
difliculty. and wc slowly worked our way through the lields of 
Hoating ivr which covered all the U[)[)er ])ortion of the inlet. 
The men |)lied the oars with which the canoe was fortunately 
provided, while 1 directed its course with a jiaddle. A heavy 
swell rolling in ti'om the ocean rendered the task of choosing a 
route tlirough the grinding ice-pack somewhat ditlicult. After 
tour or five hours of hard work, during which time several vain 
attempts were made to traverse leads in the ice which had only 
one o])ening, we succeedeil in ix'aching the southern end oi' the 
island. ;,] 

The shores of llariike island are steepa ml I'ocky. and, so tar 
as I am awaiv, alford only one cove in which a boat can take 
refuge. This is at theexti'eiue southern point, and is not visibk; 
until its entrance is reacheil. A bi'eak or jissure in the ro(d-:s 
there admits of the accumulation ol' stone and sand, and this 



('aiiociiu/ (t'liiovf/ J<'('hnrj>i. 97 

has been exteudecl l)y tho action of the waves and tides until a 
beach a hundred feet in length has l)een deposited. The dash- 
ing of the bowlders and sand against the cliffs at tlie head of the 
cove b}^ the incoming waves has increased its extension in that 
direction so as to form a well-sheltered refuge. The aljsence of 
beaches on other portions of the island is due to the fact that its 
bordering precipices descend abruptly into deep water, and do 
not admit of the accumulation of debris about their bases. A\^ith- 
out stones and sand with which the waves can work, the excava- 
tion of terraces is an exceedingly sIoav operation. The precipitous 
nature of the l)orders of the island is due, to some extent at least, 
to the aljrasion of tlie rocks 1)y the glacial ice which once encir- 
cled it. 

Palling our canoe far u\) on the Ijcach, we l)egan the ascent of 
the cliffs. Hundreds of sea l)irds, startled from their nests by 
our intrusion, circled fearlessly about our heads and filled the 
air with their wild cries. The more exposed portions of the 
slopes Avere Imre of vegetation, but in the shelter of every depres- 
sion dense thickets obstructed the w^ay. Many of the little basins 
between the rounded knolls hold tarns of fresh water, and were 
occui)ied at the time of our visit by flocks of gray geese. It is 
evident that the island was intensely glaciated at no distant day. 
The surfaces of its rounded domes are so smoothly polished that 
they glitter like mirrors in the sunlight. On the i)olished sur- 
faces there are deep grooves and fine, hair-like lines, made liy the 
stones set in the V)ottom of the glacier which once fiowed over 
the island and removed all of the rocks that were not firm and 
hard. On many of the domes of sandstone there rest liowlders 
of a different character, which have evidently l)een l)rouglit from 
tl:ie mountains toward the northeast. 

The summit of the island is aliout 81)0 feet a])ove the level of 
the sea, and, like its sides, is polished and striated. The terraces 
on the mountains of the mainland show that the glacier which 
formerly flowed out from Disenchantment V)ay must have been 
fully 2,0'JO feet dee}). The bed it occuj)ied toward tlie south is 
now flooded by the waters of '^I'akutat })ay. 

At the time of Malaspina's visit, 100 years ago, the glaciers 
from the north reached Haenke island, and surrounded it on 
three sides.* At the rate of retreat indicated l)y comparing 

* The map accompanying Malaspina's report and indicating these condi- 
tions has already been mentioned, and is reproduced on plate 7, page 68. 



1)8 /. C. l:>lssrl/ KrpxJUln,, t(, M(,l(,t( St. Kluix. 

Malaspiua s re^-onls with the present condition, tlie i>laeiers must 
have reached Point Espt'ranza, at the mouth of Disenelumtment 
l>av. altout 21):) years au"() : and an aHowanee of hetween ■")'.):) and 
1. ();):) years wouhl seem anijtle for the retreat of tlie ulaeiers since 
I hey were at their Hood. 

Ueachinir tlie topmost dome of Ilaenke island, a wondi'rful 
panorama of snow-covered mountains, ulaciers. and icehergs lay 
before us. The island occupies the position of the stage in a vast 
amphitheatre; the spectators are hoary mountain peaks, each a 
monarch robed in ermine and bidding deliance to the ceaseless 
war of the elements. How insignificant the wanderer who con- 
fi-ont< such an audience, and how weak his effort-; to dc-cribe 
such a scene ! 

From a wild clitf-cnclosc I valley toward the north. guardc(l by 
towering pinnacles and massive clifi's, Hows a great glacier, the 
fountains of which are far back in the heart of the mountains 
beyond the reach of vision. Having vainly sought an Indian 
name for this ice-stream. I concluded to christen it the Dalton 
(llac'ter. in honor of .John Dalton. a miner and frontiersman now 
living at Yakutat. who is justly considered the j)ioneer explorer 
of the region. Tlie glacier is greatly shattered and pinnacled in 
descending its stee]) channel, and on reaching the sea it expands 
into a broad ice-loot. The last steep descent is made just before 
gaining the water, and is marked by crevasses and pinnacles of 
magniiicent })ro[)ortion and lieautiful color. This is one of the 
few glaciers in the St. Elias region that has well-defined medial 
and lateral moraines. At the bases of the cliffs on the western 
side there is a broad, lateral moraine, and in the center, looking 
like a winding road leading up the glacier, runs a triple-banded 
ribbon ofdebris, forming a typical medial moraine. Themorainal 
material carried by the gl-acier is at last deposited at its foot, or 
Hoated away by icebergs, and scattered far and wiilc ovci- the 
l>ottom of Yakutat bay. 

The glacier expands on entering the water, as is the habit of 
all glaciers when unconfined, and ends in magnificent ice-cliffs 
some two miles in length. The water dashing against the bases 
of the cliffs dissolves them away, antl the tides tend to i-aisc' and 
lower the expanded ice-foot. The result is that huge masses, 
sonu'times reaching from summit to base of the cliffs, are under- 
mined, and topple over into the sea with a tremendous crash. 
OwiuLi- to tbcflistanceof the glacier from Ilaenke island, we could 



The Formnfioi) of Trrberr/ft. 00 

f^ee tlio fall long Ix'forc the roar reached our oars; the dirts sepa- 
rated, and huge masses seemed to sink without a sound; the 
spray thrown up as the l)lue pinnacles disaj^peared ascended 
like gleaming rockets, sometimes as high as the tops of the clitt's, 
and then fell back in silent cataracts of foam. Then a noise as 
of a cannonade came rolling across the waters and echoing from 
clifTto cliff. The roar of the glacier continues all day when the 
air is warm and the sun bright, and is most active when the sum- 
mer days are finest. Sometimes, roar succeeded roar, like artil- 
lery fire, and the salutes Avere answered, gun for gun, f)y the great 
Hubbard glacier, which pours its flood of ice into the fjord a few 
miles further northeastward. This ice-stream, vaoHt magnificent 
of the tide-water glaciers of Alaska yet discovered, and a towering 
mountain peak from which the glacier receives a large part of its 
drainage, were named in honor of (iardiner (!. Hul>l)ard. ])resi- 
dent of the National (ieographic Society. 

r.ooking across the waters of the bay, whitened by thousands 
of floating bergs, we could see three miles of tlie ice-cliffs formed 
where the Hubbard glacier enters the sea. A dark headland on 
the shore of the mainland to the right shut off the full view ol' 
the glacier but formed a strongly drawn foreground, which en- 
hanced the picturesque effect of the scenery. The Hubbard 
glacier flows majestically through a deep valley leading back 
into the mountains, and has two main branches, with a smaller 
and steeper tributary between. These branches unite to form 
a single ice-foot extending into the bay. The western branch 
has a dark medial moraine down its center, whicli makes a l)old, 
sweeping curve before joining the main stream. There is also a 
broad lateral debris-belt along the bases of the cliffs forming its 
right ])ank. The whole surface of the united glacier, and all of 
the white tongues running Ijack into the mountains Ijeyond the 
reach of vision, are broken and shattered, owing to the steepness 
and roughness of the Ijed over which they flow. The surface, 
Avhere not concealed b}'' morainal material, is snow-white ; but 
in the multitude of crevasses the l)lue ice is exposed, and gives 
a greenish-l)lue tint to the entire stream. Where the sul)glacial 
slopes are steep, the ice is broken into pinnacles and towers of 
the grandest descrij^tion. 

On the steep mountain sides sloping toward the Hul)bar(l 
glacier there are more than a dozen secondary ice-streams which 
are tributary to it. The amphitheatres in which tlie glacier has 



100 /. ('. Hiissrl/ — Erprdlfin)) in Moimi St. Klia^. 

its l)('ii;inninus luivo lU'Vcf liccii seen ; l)ut nurgcncnil knowlcdiie 
nt' the fountains fVoiii which iilacicrs lh)\v assures us'that not 
only sc ires hut huiKh'cds ot' other scconi hi i"v and tertiary u'laeiers 
far h;ick into the iiiountains eonti'ihute their Moods to the same 
,L:reat stream. 

Al'ter l)einu' reeei\-(Ml on hoard the '' '(//■//■/■;/. hitr in Se|itcmher, 
\vc hud an opi)ortunity to view the j^reat sea-eHtl's of the Huhhai-d 
ghu'ier near at IkukL ('a])tain Hooper, attracted hy tlie niaunili- 
eent seeneiy. took his vessel up 1 )iseuehantment hay to a ])oint 
l)ey()nd Haenke island, whenee a view could he had of tlie ea.steru 
extensioi\ of the inlet. So far as is known, the (hririri was the 
first vessel to navi<iate those waters. Soundings madt' Ix'tween 
the island and the ice-foot gave forty to sixty fathoms. At the 
elhow, where tlie southeastern shore of the hay turns a1)ru])tly 
ea-tward, there is a low islet not reiii'esente<l on any maj) jjrevious 
to the one made by the recent ex]>edition. which connnands even 
a wider prospect than can \\v ohtainel from Haenke island. 
Future visitors to this remote coast should endeavor to reach this 
islet, after having beheld the grand [)anorama obtainable from 
the summit of Haenke island. The portion of Disenchantment 
bay stretching eastAvard from the foot of Hubbard glacier is 
enclosed on all sides by l)old mountains, the lower slopes of 
which have the subdued and flowing outlines characteristic of 
glaciated regions. Several glaciers occur in the high-grade lateral 
valleys oi)ening from the bay ; but these have recently retreated, 
and none of them have sufficient volume at present to reach the 
water. The general recession, in which all the glaciers of Alaska 
are ])articipating, is manifested here l)y the broad debris fields, 
which cover all the lower ice-streams not ending in the sea. 
The al)sencc of vegetation on the smooth rocks recently aban- 
doned by the ice also tells of recent climatic changes. 

A del)ris-covere(l glacier, so completely conct'aled by continu- 
ous sheets of stones and earth that its true character can scarcely 
be recognized, descends from the mountains just east of Hul)bard 
glacier. It is formed l)y the union of two pi-incipal ti-ihutaries^ 
and, on reaching comparatively level ground, expands into a 
Ijroad ice-foot, l)ut does not have sufficient volume to reach the 
sea. Another glacier, of smaller size hut of the same general 
character, lies between the Huhl)ar(l and Dalton glaciers. 

In a rugu'ed delile in the mountains just west of Haenke island 
there is another small dirt-covered glacier, which ci^'cps down 
from the ))recipices above and reaches within a mile of the water. 



Tide-water Glaciers. 



101 



At its end there i.s a cliff of Ijlack, dirty ice, scarcely to be dis- 
tinguished from rock at a little distance, from the base of which 
tiows a turl)id stream. This glacier is covered so completely 
with earth and stones that not a vestige of the ice can be seen 
unless we actually traverse its surface. Its appearance suggests 
the name of Black glacier, b_v which it is designated on the 
accompanying map. 

The visitor to Haenke island has examples of at least two well- 
marked types of glaciers in view : The small debris-covered ice- 
streams, too small to reach the water, are typical of a large class 
of glaciers in southern Alaska, which are slowly wasting away 
and have become buried beneath debris concentrated at the sur- 
fiice by reason of their own melting. The Galiano glacier is a 
good example of this class. The Hul)bard and Dalton glaciers 
are fine examples of another class of ice-streams which flow into 
the sea and end in ice-cliffs, and which for convenience we call 
tide-water glaciers. Nowhere can finer or more beautiful ex- 
amples of this type be found than those in view from Haenke 
island. 




FrerRE 1 — Diagram illnstral'mg the Formation of Iceherqa. 

The formation of icebergs from the undermining and breaking 
down of the ice-cliffs of the tide-water glaciers has already been 
mentioned. But there is another method by which bergs are 
formed — a process even more remarkable than the avalanches 
that occur when portions of the ice-cliffs topple over into the 
sea. The ice-cliffs at the foot of the tide-water glaciers are really 
sea-cliffs formed by the waves cutting back a terrace in the ice. 
The submerged terrace is composed of ice, and may extend out a. 
thousand feet or more in front of the visible part of the ice-cliffs. 
These conditions are represented in the accompanying diagram 
(figure 1), which exhiliits a longitudinal section of the loAver end 
of a tide-water glacier where it pushes out into the sea. 

As the sea-cliff of ice recedes and the submerged terrace in- 
creases in breadth there comes a time when the l)U()yancy of the 

15— Nat. Geog. Mao., vol. Ill, 1>91. 



102 I. C. naHHvll—E.cpalitioii fo Minuii St. Elinx. 

ice at the ])ottoni oxccmhIs its stivnirtli, and ])iofcs break off and 
rise U) tlic suiiacc The watci- altout tlu' cuds of the glaciers is 
so intensely muddy that the sulmierged ice-foot is hidden from 
view, and its presence would not he suspected were it not for tlie 
fragments occasional!}^ rising from it. Tlic sudden appearance of 
these masses of hottom ice at the surl'ace is always startling. 
While watching the ice-cliffs and admiring the play of colors in 
the deep crevasses which penetrate them in every direction, or 
tracing in fancy the strange history of the silent river and won- 
dering in what age the snows fell on the mountains, which are 
now returning to tlieir ])arent, tlie sea, one is frequently awakened 
by a commotion in the waters below, perhaps several lumdred 
feet in front of the ice-cliffs. At first it seems as if some huge 
sea-n)onster had risen from the dec}) and was lashing the waters 
into i'oam ; l)ut soon the waters })art, and a blue island rises to 
the surface, carrying hundreds of tons of water, which Hows down 
its sides in cataracts of foam.. Some of the bergs turn conipletely 
over on emerging, and thus add to the tumult and confusion 
that attends their birth. The waves roll away in widening circles, 
to break in surf on the adjacent shores, and an island of ice of 
the most lovely blue floats serenely away to join the thousands 
of similar islands that have preceded it. The fragments of the 
glacier rising from tht^ bottom in this manner are usually larger 
than those broken from the faces of the ice-cliffs, sometimes 
measuring 200 or 300 feet, in diameter. Their size and the sud- 
denness with which they rise would insure certain destruction of 
a vessel venturing too near the treacherous ice-walls. 

At the time of our visit to Haenke island, the entire surface of 
Disenchantment bay and all of Yakutat l)ay as far southward as 
we could see formed one vast fit'ld of lloating ice. Most of the 
bergs were small, but hert' and there rose masses which measured 
150 by 200 feet on their sides and stood 40 or oO feet out of the 
water. The bei'gs are divided, in reference to color, into three 
classes — the white, the blue, and the black. The white ones are 
those that have fallen from the iace of the ice-walls or those that 
have been sufliciently exposed to the atmos})herc to become 
melted at the surface and tilled with air cavities. The blue bergs 
are of many shades and tints, finding their nearest match in 
color in Antwcrj) blue. These are the ones that have recently 
risen from the submerged ice-foot, oi' lia\"c turned over owing to 
a change of ])()sition in the center of gi-a\ity. Rapid as is the 






1 


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* "■ 


.1 


'V,v':| 


1 


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H 


'i:\']\\ 




-* #• 1 A^ 




y J-' 




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t^i .^ 




lU 



Delai/ed by Icebergs. 103 

melting of the ice when exposed to the air, it seems to liquefy 
even more quickly when submerged. The changes thus pro- 
duced finally cause the hergs to reverse their positions in the 
water. This is done Avithout the slightest warning, and is one of 
the greatest dangers to be guarded against while canoeing among 
them. The white color })resented by the majority of the bergs is 
changed to blue when they l^ecome stranded, and the surf breaks 
over them and dissolves away their porous surfaces. A few of 
the bergs are black in ct)lor, owing to the dirt and stones that 
they carry on their surfaces or frozen in their mass. Quantities 
of debris are thus floated away from the tide-water glaciers and 
strewn over the bottoms of the adjacent inlets. 

This digression may be wearisome, but one cannot stand on 
Haenke island without wishing to know all the secrets of the 
great ice-streams that flow silently liefore him. 

Returning from our commanding station at the summit of tlie 
island to where we left our canoe, we were surprised and not a 
little startled to find that the tide had run out and left the strand 
lietween our canoe and the water completely l)locked with huge 
fragments of ice. There was no way left for us to launch our 
canoe exce]:)t by cutting away and leveling off" the ice with our 
axe, so as to form a trail over which we could drag it to the 
water. This we did, and then, poising the canoe on a low flat 
berg, half of which extended l)eneath the water, I took my place 
in it with paddle in hand, while Christie and Crumback, waiting 
for the moment when a large wave rolled in, launched the canoe 
ftir out in the surf. By the vigorous use of my paddle I suc- 
ceeded in reaching smooth water and brought the canoe close 
under the cliff forming the southern side of the cove, where the 
men were able to drop in as a wave rolled under us. 

We slowly worked our way doAvn the bay through l)lue lanes 
in the ice-pack, against an incoming tide, and reached our tents 
near sunset. Thus ended one of the most enjoyable and most 
instructive days at Yakutat bay. 

Fkom Yakutat Bay to Blossom Island. 

Our camp on the shore of Yakutat Ijay was held for several 
days after returning from Haenke island, but in the meantime 
an advailce-camp was established on the side of the Lucia 
glacier, from which Mr. Kerr and myself made explorations 
ahead. 



101 /. C. Ram II— Expedition lo Mo, mi ,S7. J-JlUifi. 

Bcfdve leaving; the liase-cnnip I visited lilack glacier for the 
]>ur|»<)se of taking i)lioto,(rrai)lis and studying tli(> apiiearance of 
an old glacier far spent and fast passing away. This, like the 
(ialiano glacier, is a good example of a great nunil)er of ice- 
stn'anis in the same region Avhich are covered from side to side 
with dclii'is. The cnrion walls on either side rise ])recipit(iusly. 
and their h)wer slopes, for the height of 200 or 8IJ() feet, are hare 
of vegetation. The surface of the glacier has evidently sunken 
to this extent within a period too short to allow of the accumula- 
tion of soil and the rooting of plaiit-^ on the slojjes. The Icinks 
refi^rred to are in part helow the U]i])er limit of timber growth, 
and the adjacent surfaces are covered with hushes, grasses, and 
(lowers. Under tlie climatic conditions there prevailing, it is 
evident tliat the formation of soil and the spreading of plants 
over areas ahandoned by ice is a matter of comparatively few 
years. It is for this reason that a very recent retreat of Black 
glacier is inferred. Many of the glaciers in southern Alaska give 
similar evidence of recent contraction, and it is evident that a 
climatic change is in progress which is either decreasing the 
winter's snow or increasing the sunnner's heat. The most sensi- 
tive indicators of these changes, resi)onding even more (piickly 
than does the vegetation, are the glaciers. 

The fourth of July was spent by us in cutting a trail u[) the 
steep mountain slope to the am})hitheatre visited during my 
first tramp. No one can appreciate the dcMisity and luxuriance 
of the vegetation on the lower mountain in that region until he 
has cut a i)assage through it. 8even men, working continuously 
for six or seven hours Avith axe-! and knives, were able to o]ien a 
comparatively good trail about a mile in length. The remainder 
of the way was along stream courses and up bowlder-washes, 
which were free from vegetation. In the afternoon, having lin- 
ished our task, a half-holiday was spent in an exciting search for 
two huge brown bears discovered by one of the party, but they 
vanished liefort' the guns could be brought out. 

The next day an advance-camp was made in tlu' ani[)hitheatre 
al)ove timl)er line, and there Mr. Kerr and myself ])asse 1 the 
night, molested only by swarms of mosipiitoes, and the day fol- 
lowing occu])ied an outstanding butte as a topogra})hical station. 
In the afternoon of the same day the advance-caiup was moved 
to the l)ord(;r of the Atrevida glacier at a point already descril)ed, 
where a muddv stream gushes out from under the ice. 



Confrad of Desolation and Verdure. 105 

Our next advance-camp, established a few days later, was at 
Terrace j^oint, as we called the extreme end of the mountain 
spur separating the Lucia and Atrevida glaciers. These ice- 
streams were formerly much higher than now, and when at their 
flood formed terraces along the mountain side, which remain 
distinctly visible to the present day. The space between the two 
glaciers at the southern end of the mountain spur became filled 
with bowlders and stones carried down on the side of the ice- 
streams, and, as the glaciers contracted, added a ta})ering point 
to the mountain. Between the present surface of the ice and the 
highest terrace left at some former time there are many ridges, 
sloping down stream, which record minor changes in the fluctu- 
ation of the ice. A i)ortion of one of these terraces is seen to the 
left in plate 10. 

Terrace point, like all the lower portions of the mountain spurs 
extending southward from the main range, is densely clothed 
with vegetation, and during the short summers is a paradise of 
flowers. Our tent was pitched on a low terrace just beyond the 
border of the ice. The steep bluff rising to an elevation of some 
200 feet on the east of our camp was formed by glacial ice buried 
beneath an absolutely barren covering of stones and dirt. On 
the west the ascent was still more precipitous, but the slope from 
base to summit was one mass of gorgeous flowers. 

Kerr and myself made several excursions from the camjj at 
Terrace point, and explored the country ahead to the next 
mountain spur for the purpose of selecting a site for another 
advance-camp. In the meantime the men were busy in Ining- 
ing up supplies. 

Our reconnoissance westward took us across the Lucia glacier 
to the mouth of a deep, transverse gorge in the next mountain 
spur. The congeries of low peaks and knobs south of this pass 
we named the Floral hills, on account of the luxuriance of the 
vegetation covering them ; and the saddle separating them from 
the mountains to the north was called Floral pass. 

In crossing the Lucia glacier we experienced the usual ditii- 
culties met with on the debris-covered ice-field of Alaska. The 
way was exceedingly rough, on account of the ridges and valleys 
on the ice, and on account of the angular condition of the del^ris 
resting upon it. Many of the ridges could not conveniently be 
climbed, owing to the uncertain footing afforded by the angular 



lUU /. C. RusscU — Expedition lo Moitut >S7. Klias. 

stones resting on the slipijevv slope l)eneatli. Fortunately, the 
erevasses were mostly filled with stones fallen from tlie sides, so 
that tlie daiiLier from open fissures, whicli has usually to be 
guarded against in glacial excursions, Avas obviated ; yet, as is 
usually the case when crevasses l)econie filled with debris, the 
melting of the adjacent suii'aces had caused thciii to stand in 
relief and form ridges of loose stones, wliidi were exceechngly 
troublesome to the traveler. 

Near the western side of the Lucia glacier, l)etween Terrace 
point and Floral pass, there is a huge rounded dome of sand- 
stone rising boldly out of the ice. This corresponds to the " nun- 
ataks " of the Greenland ice-fields, and was covered by ice when 
the glaeiation was more intense than at present. Ou the north- 
ern side of the island the ice is forced high up on its Hanks, and 
is deeply covered with motaines ; but on the southwestern side 
its base is low and skirted by a sand plain deposited in a valley 
formerly occupied by a lake. . The melting of the glacier has, in 
fact, progressed so far that the dome of rock is free from ice on 
its southern side, and is connected with the border of the valley 
toward the west by the sand plain. This ])lain is composed of 
gravel and sand deposited by streams which at times became 
dammed lower down and exi^anded into a lake. Sunken areas 
and holes ovei' portions of the lake liottom show that it rests, in 
])art at least, upon a l)ed of ice. 

The most novel and interesting feature in the fAicia glacier is 
a glacial river wliich bursts from beneath a high archway of ice 
just at the eastern l)ase of the nunatak mentioned above, and 
Hows for about a mile and a half through a channel excavated 
in the ice, to then enter the mouth of another tunnel and l)ecome 
lost to view. An illustration of this strange river and of the 
mouth of tbc tunnel in the del)ris-covered ice into which it rolls, 
reproduced from a photograph by a mechanical process, is given 
on plate 14 (page 110), and another view of the mouth of the 
same tunnel is presented in the succeeding plate. This is the 
finest example of a glacial river that it has ever been my good 
fortune to examine. 

The stream is swift, and its waters ai-e brown and heavy with 
sediment. Its breadth is al)out 150 feet. For the greater part 
of its way. where open to sunlight, it flows between banks of ice 
and over an icy floor. Fragments of its Ijanks, and porti(jns of 



A fyjncal glacial Elver. 107 

the sides and roof of the tunnel from which it emerges, are swept 
along by the swift current, or stranded here and there in mid- 
stream. The sand plain already mentioned borders the river for 
a portion of its course, and is flooded wlien tlie lower tunnel is 
obstructed. 

The archway under which the stream disaj^pears is about fifty 
feet high, and the tunnel retains its dimensions as ftir as one can 
see by looking in at its mouth. Where the stream emerges is 
unknown ; Ijut the emergence could no doubt be discovered by 
examining the border of the glacier some miles southward. No 
explorer has yet been bold enough to enter the tunnel and drift 
through with the stream, altliough this could possibly be done 
without great danger. The greatest risk in such an undertaking 
would be from falling blocks of ice. While I stood near the 
mouth of the tunnel there came a roar from the dark cavern 
within, reverberating like the explosion of a heavy blast in the 
chambers of a mine, that undoubtedly marked thefall of an ice 
mass from the arched roof The course of the stream below the 
mouth of the tunnel may be traced for some distance by scarps 
in the ice above, formed by the settling of the roof Some of 
these may be traced in the illustrations. When the roof of the 
tunnel collapses so completely as to obstruct the passage, a lake 
is formed above the tunnel, and when the obstruction is removed 
the streams draining the glacier are flooded. 

At the mouth of the tunnel there are always confused noises 
and rhythmic vibrations to be heard in the dark recesses within. 
The air is filled witli pulsations like deep organ notes. It takes 
but httle imagination to transform these strange sounds into the 
voices and songs of the mythical inha])itants of the nether regions. 
Toward the right of the tunnel, as shown on plate 14,°there 
appears a portion of the former river bed, now abandoned, (nving 
to the cutting across of a bend in the stream. The floor of this 
old channel is mostly of clear, white ice, and has a peculiar, 
hummocky appearance, which indicates the direction of the 
current that once flowed over it. A portion of the bed is covered 
with sand and gravel, and along its border are gravel terraces 
resting on ice. These occurrences illustrate the foct that rivers 
flowing through channels of ice are governed hy the same general 
laws as the more familiar surface streams. 

After examining this glacial river, during our first excursion 
on the Lucia glacier, we reached its western l>an.ks bv crossino- 



108 /. ('. fiiiss//l — Expedition to Mount St. Elias. 

above the upper archway. Traversing the sand ]»l;un to the 
westward, we came to another .stream of nearly equal interest, 
flowing along the western margin of the glacier, past the end of 
the deep gorge called Floral pass. A small creek, flowing down 
the pass, joins the stream and skirts the glacier just below tlic 
mouth of a wild gorge on the side of the main valley. Tliis 
stream once flowed along the l)or(ler of the lAicia glacier when 
it was nuich higher than now, and began the excavation of a 
channel in the rock, whicli was retained after tlie surface of the 
glacier was lowered by melting. It still flows in a r(K'k-cut 
channel for al)()ut a mile before descending to the l)order of the 
glacier as it exists at i)resent. The geologist will see at once that 
this is a peculiar example of superimi)Osed drainage. The gorge 
cut by the stream is a deep narrow trench Avith rough angular 
cliffs on either side, and is a good examjjle of a water-cut canon. 
AA'hen the Lucia glacier melts away and leaves the broad- 
bottomed valley clear of ice, the deep nai'row gorge on its western 
side, running parallel with its longer axes, l)ut a thousand feet 
or more above its bottom, Avill remain as one of the evidences of 
a former ice invasion. 

During our reconnoissance we turned back at the margin of 
the second river, but a day or two later reached the same jjoint 
with the camp hands and camping outfit, and, placing a roi)e 
from bank to l)ank, effected a crossing. Our next camp was in 
Floral ])ass. From there we occupied a topographical station on 
the sunmiit of the Floral hills, and made another reconnoissance 
ahead, across the Hajidea glarier,^^ to the next mountain s)»ur. 

Floral ])ass,likeso many of the topographical features examined 
during the recent expedition, has a peculiar history. It is a com- 
])ai'atively low-grade gorge leading directly across the end of an 
angular mountain range forming one of the spurs of Mount 
Cook. The ]»osition of the i)ass was detcnuiiicd by an east-and- 
west fault and l)y the erosion of soft shales turned uj) on edge 
along the line of displacement. At its head it is shut in by the 
Hayden glacier, which flows past it and forms a wall of ice about 
two hundred feet high. The water liowing out from beneatli 
the side of the glacier forms a muddy creek, which finds its way 
over a bowlder-covered bed in the bottom of the gorge to the 
border of Lucia glacier. Along the sides of the gorge there are 

* Named in honor of the late Dr. Ferdinand V. TIayden, founder of tlie 
United States CJeolofrical Survi'v nf tlic Tcriiturics. 



Camp in Floral Pass. 109 

many terraces, which record a complicated history. Evenly 
stratified clays near its lower end, adjacent to the Lucia glacier, 
show that it was at one time occupied in part by a lake. Above 
the lacustral beds there are water-worn deposits, indicating that 
at a later date the gorge was filled from side to side by moraines 
and coarse stream deposits several hundred feet thick. These 
were excavated, and portions were lefti clinging to the hill-sides, 
forming the terraces of to-day. Diverse slopes in the terraces 
suggest that the drainage may at times have been reversed, ac- 
cording as the Lucia or the Hayden glacier was the higher. 

The routes between our various camps, scattered along between 
Yakutat bay and Blossom island, were traversed several times by 
every member of the party. To traverse the same trail several 
times with heavy loads, and perhaps in rain and mist, is dis- 
heartening work which I will spare the reader the effort of follow- 
ing even in fancy. 

From our camp in Floral pass another reconnoissance ahead 
was made by Mr. Kerr and myself, as already mentioned. These 
advances, each one of which told us something new, were the 
most interesting portions of our journey. The little adventures 
and experiences of each advance Avere reported and talked over 
when we rejoined our companions around the cam23-fire at night, 
and were received with gratifying interest by the men. 

A view of the Hayden glacier from the Floral hills showed us 
that it differed from any of the glaciers previously traversed. Its 
surface, where we i)lanned to cross it, was free of debris except 
alcmg the margins and also near the center, where we could 
distinguish a light medial moraine. Farther southward, near 
the terminus of the glacier, its surface from side to side was 
l)uried l;)eneath a sheet of stones and dirt. As in many other 
instances, the delnis on the lower portion of the glacier has been 
concentrated at the surface, owing to the melting of the ice, so 
as to form a continuous sheet. 

Early one morning, while traveling over the torrent-swept 
bowlders in the stream-bed on our way up Floral pass, we were 
a little startled at seeing the head of a bear just visible through 
the flowers fi-inging the bank. Before a shot could be fired, he 
vanished, and remained perfectly quiet among the bushes for 
several minutes. But a treml^ling of the branches at length be- 
trayed his presence, and a few minutes later he came out in full 
view, his yellow-brown coat giving him the appearance of a liuge 

16— Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. Ill, 1891. 



110 T. (\ niis<<fI/—K.rjy(Jiflon to Mount St. EJins. 

(loj:. Standinjf on n rounded mound he looked in(]uiringly "down 
the valley, with liis i^haggy side in full view. I tired — hut missed 
my aim. Tlw uiisucees.-^ful hunter always has an exeuse for his 
failure ; I had never hefore used the rille 1 earrie(L and the haii-- 
trigger with which it was provided deceived me. Fortunately 
for thi' hear, and ]>rohably still more fortunately for me, the hull et 
went far above the mark. The huge beast vanished again, al- 
though the vegetation was not dense, and left us wondering how 
such a large animal could disappear so quickly and so completely 
in such an o))en region. On searching for his tracks, we found 
that he had traversed for a few rods the plant-covered terrace on 
which he was first discovered, an<l then es('a])ed u]i a lateral gorge 
to a broader terrace above. 

Reaching the head of the Floral pass and climhing the hill (tf 
dehris bordering the Hayden glacier, we came (.)ut u[ton the clear, 
white ice of the central portion of the ice-stream. The ice was 
greatly crevassed, l)ut nearly all the gaps in its surface could Ix^ 
crossed by jumping or else by ice-bridges. The most interesting 
feature iiresented Ijy the glacier was the way in which it yields 
itself to the inequality of the rocks over which it flows. Starting 
on the eastern side, below the entrance to Floral pass, and ex- 
tending northwestward diagonally across the stream, there is a 
line of steep descent in the rocks l)eneath, which causes the ice 
to be greatly broken. This is not i)r()[)erly an ice-tall, except 
near the confining walls of the canon ; but it might be called an 
ice-rai)id. The ice bends down over the subglaciah scarp Avith 
many long breaks, l)ut does not form pinnacles, as in many simi- 
lar instances where the descent is greater, and true ice cascades 
oc(;ur. The most practicable way for crossing the glacier was to 
ascend the stream above the line of rapids for some distance, and 
then follow diagonally down its center, finally v(>ering westward 
to the ()i)posite bank, liy following this course, and making a 
doul)le curve like the letter $, we could cross the steep descent 
in the center, where it was least crevassed. 

The marginal moraines on the Hayden glacier aw formed of 
fragments of l)rowu and gray sandstone and l)lack shale of all 
sizes and shapes. It is clear that this del^ris Avas gathered l>y 
the clifFs bordering the glacier on eithei" si(U'. The meilial mo- 
raine which first appears at the surface just al)ove the rapids is 
of a diiferent character, and tells that the higher peaks of Mount 
('(tok are composeil, in part at least, of a dilfei'ciit material from 



Detdils of the Glacier.s Surface. Ill 

the spurs projecting from it. The medial moraine looks black 
from a distance, but, on traversing it, it was found to be com- 
posed mainly of dark-green gabbro and serpentine. The debris 
is scattered over the surface in a belt several rods wide ; but it is 
not deep, as the ice can almost everywhere be seen between the 
stones. Where the fragments of rock are most widely separated, 
there are fine illustrations of the manner in which small, dark 
stones al)Sorb the heat of the sun and melt the ice beneath more 
rapidly than the surrounding surface, sinking into the ice so as 
to form little wells, several inches deep, filled with clear water. 
Larger stones, which are not warmed through during a day's 
sunshine, protect the ice beneath while the adjacent surface is 
melted, and consequently l:»ecome elevated on i)illars or pedestals 
of ice. The stones thus elevated are fre(|uently large, and form 
tables which are nearly always inclined southward. In other 
instances the ice over large areas, especially along the center of 
the medial moraine, was covered with cones of fine, angular frag- 
ments from a few inches to three or four feet in height. These 
were not really piles of gravel, as they seemed, but consisted of 
cones of ice, sheeted over with thin layers of small stones. The 
secret of their formation, long since discovered on the glaciers of 
Switzerland, is that the gravel is first concentrated in a hole in 
the ice and, as the general surface melts away, acts like a large 
stone and protects the ice beneath. It is raised on a pedestal, 
Init the gravel at the 1iorders c(.nitinually rolls down the sides and 
a conical form is the result. 

\Miere we crossed the Hayden glacier it is only about a mile 
l)road in a direct line ; but to traverse it by the circuitous route 
rendered necessary by the character of its surface required about 
three hours of hard tramping, even when unincumbered with 
packs. From the center of the glacier a magnificent view may 
be obtained of the snow-covered domes of Mount Cook, from 
which rugged mountain ridges stretch southward like great arms 
and enclose the white snow-field from which the glacier flows. 
At an elevation of 2,500 feet the icy portion disappears beneath 
the neve on which not a trace of debris is visil)le. All the higher 
}tortions of the mountains are white as snow can make them, 
except Avherc the i)innacles and precipices are too steep to retain 
a covering. 

On reaching the western side of the glacier we found a bare 
space on the bordering cliffs, al)out a hundred feet high, which 



112 /. C. liimdl—Kxpcdit'uni to Jlomil *S7. J^JUas. 

has l)Pcn al)an(l()n(Ml l)y the ice so recently tliat it is not yet 
grassed over. AI)ov(^ tliis came the luxuriant and beautiful 
ve.jjetation covering nil the lower mountain slopes. 

The mountain spur just west of the glacier, like several of the 
ridges stretching southward from the higher mountains, ends 
in a group of hills somewhat sei»ar;ite from the main ridge. The 
hills are covered with a rank vegetation, and in places sup- 
port a dense growth of spruce trees. Reaching the grassy 
summit, we had a fine, far-reaching view of the unexplored 
region toward the west, and of the vast plateau of ice stretching 
southward beyond the reach of the vision. \W'st of our station, 
another great ice-stream, named the Marvine glacier, in honor of 
the late A. R. Marvine, flows southward Avith a breadth exceed- 
ing that of any of the icy streams yet crossed. Beyond the 
Marvine glacier, and forming its western horder, there is an 
exceedingl}'- rugged mountain range trending northeast and 
southwest. Although this is, topographically, a portion of the 
mountain mass forming Mount Cook, its prominence and its 
peculiar geological structure render it important that it should 
have an independent name. In acknowledgment of the services 
t;) science rendered by the iirst state geologist of Massachusetts, 
it is designated the HitrJimrl- raiuje on our maps. Rising a1)ove 
the angular crest line of this mountain mass towers the ])yram- 
idal summit of i\Iount St. Elias, seemingly as distant as when 
we first beheld it from near Yakutat bay. 

Al)Out a nule west of the hill on which we stood, and beyond 
the hed of a lake now drained of its waters by a tunnel leading 
southward through the ice, rose a steep, rocky island out of the 
glaciers, its summit overgrown with vegetation and dark with 
s])ruce trees. This oasis in a sea of ice, subsequently named 
Blossom island, we chose as the most favorable site for our next 
advance-cam]). 

We then returned to our camp in Floral pass, and a day or 
two later Kerr and Christie started on a side trip up the Hayden 
glacier, to be absent five days. During this trip the weather was 
stormy, and only allowed half an hour for topograi)hical work 
when a somewhat favorable station was reached. This was of 
great seryice, however, in mapi)ing the country, as it gave a station 
of considerable elevation on the side of Mount Cook. The tri]) 
was nearly all above the snow-line, and was relieved by many 
novel experiences. 



Encampment in a Paradise. 113 

A\']ii]e Kerr and Christie were away, I assisted the camp liauds 
ill advancing to Blossom island. Our first day's work consisted 
in packing loads across the Hayden glacier to the wooded hills 
on its western border, reached during the reconnoissance de- 
scribed above. The weather was st(jrmy, and a dense fog rolled 
in from the ocean, obscuring the mountains, and compelling us 
to find our way across the glacier as best we could without land- 
.marks. Patiently threading our way among crevasses, we at 
length came in sight of the forests on the extremity of the moun- 
tain spur toward the west, and concluded to camp there until 
the weather was more favoralDle. We climbed the bare slope 
Ijordering the glacier, and forced our way through the dripping 
vegetation to an open space beside a little stream and near some 
aged spruce trees that would furnish good fuel for a camp-fire. 
We were glad of a refuge, l3ut did not fully appreciate the fact 
that our tents were in a paradise of flowers until the next morn- 
ing, when the sun shone clear and bright for a few hours. We 
hailed with delight the world of summer beauty with which we 
were surrounded. Our camp was in a little valley amid irregular 
hills of debris left Ijy the former ice invasion, each of which was 
a rounded dome of flowers. The desolate ice-fields were com- 
pletely shut out from view by the rank vegetation. On the slope 
above us, dark spruce trees loaded with streamers of moss, and 
seemingly man}^ centuries old, formed a background for the floral 
decoration with which the ground was everywliere covered. 
Flowering plants and ferns were massed in such dense luxuri- 
ance that the streams were lost in gorgeous banks of bloom. 

Reluctantly we returned to Floral pass for another load of 
camp supplies, and late in the afternoon pressed on to Blossom 
island, where we again pitched our tents in rain and mist, and 
again, when the storm cleared away, found ourselves in an un- 
trodden paradise. Kerr and Christie rejoined us at Blossom 
island on July 31, and we were once more readj^for an advance. 

Blossom Island. 

Our camp on Blossom island was near a small ]3ond of water 
and close beside a thick grove of spruce trees on the western side 
of the land-mass. The tents were so placed as to secure an un- 
obstructed view to the westward; anci they were visible, in turn, 
to parties descending from the mountains toward the northwest, 
Avhither our work soon led us. 



114 /. ('. Iiuf<RrJ1—K.ri,nr,t;rn, in Mnrnl Si. K/lns. 

The .sides (if P)l()ss()iii island are roiiiih and ])i-('ci|)iti»us. 'I'hr 
jilaciers fiowinu; ])ast it eut away the roeks and, as the surface of 
the ice-fields was lowered, left them in many i)laces in ru'i.:e(l 
cliffs bare of vegetation. The top of the island was also fonuei-ly 
glaciated and in part covered with debris; l)ut the ice retri-ated 
so lonsz; ago that the once desolate surface has bec(jme clothed in 
verdure. Everywhere tlu're are dense growths of flowers, ferns 
and l)errv Inishes. On the rocky spurs, thrifty s])ruce trees, 
festooned with drooping streamers, shelter luxuriant ])anks of 
mosses, lichens and ferns. There was no evidence tliat human 
hand had ever plucked a flower in that luxuriant garden ; not 
a trace could be found of man's previous invasion. The oidy 
trails were those left by the bears in forcing their way througii 
the dense vegetation in quest of succulent roots. Later in the 
season, when the berries ripened, there was a feast si)read invit- 
ingly for all who chose to partake. On the warm summer days 
the air was filled with the perfume of the flowers, birds flitted 
in and out of the shady grove, and insects hunnned in the glad 
sunlight; the freshness and l)eauty on every hand made this 
island seem a little Eden, preserved with all its freshness and 
fragrance from the destroying hand of man. 

Tins oasis in a desert of ice is so l)eautiful and displays so 
many instructive and attractive features tliat I wisli the reader 
to come with nie u]) the flowery sloyK'S and study the interesting 
pictures to l)e seen from its summit. 

The narrow ravine l)ack of our cam}) is festooned and over- 
hung with tall ferns, shooting out from the thickets on cither 
hand like bending plumes. You will notice at a glance, if jier- 
chauce your youthful excursions hai)]jened to be in the north- 
eastern states, as were mine, that many of the ])]ants about us 
are old friends, or at least former acquaintances. The tall fern 
nodding so gracefully as Ave pass is an Aqjlcniinu, hut of ranker 
growth than in most southern regions. These tall white flowers 
with aspiring. Hat-to])])ed und)les, looking like rank caraway 
|ilants. but larger and more showy, lielong to the genus Arr/nrii- 
(/dlcd, ixnd are at home in the Cascade range and the Rocky 
Mountains as well as here. The lily-like plant growing so i)ro- 
fusely, especially in the moist dells, with tall, slim spikes of 
greeni.sh flowers and long parallel veined leaves, is Veratram 
riridc. These brilliant yellow monkey-flowers, bending so grace- 
fidly over the lianks of the pond, are closely related to the little 




Ti^mWTi^f 



'/' 



'I, ,1 



1; ,i'l 



■I i 






















Luxuriance of the Ardic Vegetation. 115 

Mimiihis wliich nods to its own golden reflection in inany of the 
brooks of New England. That puri:)le Epilobnnv, with now and 
then a pure white variety, so eonnnon everywhere on tliese hills, 
is the same wanderer that we have seen over many square miles 
beneath the burnt woods of Maine. These bushes with o1)scure 
white flowers, looking like little waxen bells, we recognize at 
once as huckleberries ; in a short time they will be loaded with 
luscious fruit. Inviting couches of moss beneath the si)ruce 
trees are festooned and decorated with fairy shapes of broAvn and 
green, that recall many a long ramble among the Adirondack 
hills and in the Canadian woods. The licapods, equiseta and 
ferns are many of them identical with the tracery on mossy 
mounds covering fallen hemlocks in the Otsego woods in New 
York, l^ut display greater luxuriance and fresher and more bril- 
liant colors. That graceful little beach-fern, here and there faded 
to a rich brown, foretelling of future changes, is identical with 
the little fairy form we used to gather long ago along the borders 
of the Great Lakes. Asters and gentians, delicate orchids and 
purple lupines, besides many less familiar plants, crowd the hill- 
sides and deck the unkept meadows with a brilliant mass of 
varied light. In the full sunshine, the hill-slo})es appear as if 
the fields of petals clothing them had the prism's power, and 
were spreading a web of rainbow tints over the lush leaves and 
grasses below. 

On our return to Blossom island, late in September, we found 
many of the flowers faded, but in their places there was a pro- 
fusion of berries nearly as brilliant in color as the petals that 
heralded their coming. Many of the thickets, inconspicuous 
1)efore, had then a deep, rich yellow tint, due to an abundance 
of luscious salmon l)erries, larger than our largest blackberries. 
The huckleberries were also ripe, and in wonderful profusion. 
These additions to our ta1)le were especially ajjpreciated after 
living for more than a month in the snow. The ash trees were 
holding aloft great bunches of scarlet berries, even deeper and 
richer in color than the ripe leaves on the same brilliant l)ranches. 
Th(? deep woods were brilliant with the l)road yellow leaves of 
the Devil's club, above which rose spikes of crimson berries. 
The dense thi(«)vets of currant bushes, so luxuriant that it was 
difficult to force one's way through them, had received a dusky, 
smoke-like tint, due to abundant blue-black strings of fruit sus- 
pended all along the under sides of the branches. 



110 /. C. Russell — Expedition to Momtt St. Elias. 

Let us not look too far ahead, how onit. Wandcrini:!; on over 
the sunny slojies, where the gardener has forgotten to sejtarate 
the colors oi- to divide the flower hanks, we gain the to[i of tlie 
ishuid ; l)ut so dense are the plants about us, and so eager is eaeh 
painted eu}) to expand freely in tlie sunlight at the expense of 
its neighbors, that we have to Ix'at them down with our alpen- 
stocks — ^niuch as Ave dislike to mar the beauty of the place — 
before we can recline on the thiclc turf beneath and study the 
strange landscape before us. 

The foreground of every view is a bank of flowers nodding and 
swaying in the wind, but all beyond is a frozen desert. The 
ice-fields Ijcfore us, with their dark bands of debris, are a picture 
of desolation. The creative Ijreath has touched only the garden 
which we, the first of wanderers, have invaded. The land before 
us is entirely without human associations. Xo Ijattles have 
there been fought, no kings have ruled, no poets have sung of its 
ruggedness, and no philosopher has explained its secrets. Yet 
it has its history, its poetry, and its philosophy ! 

The mountains toward the north are too near at hand to reveal 
their grandeur ; only the borders of the vast snow-fields coA'er- 
ing all of these upper slopes are in view. In the deep canon 
with perpendicular walls, just north of our station, but curving 
Avestward so that its upper course is concealed from view, there 
flows a secondary glacier which forces its terminal moraine high 
up on the northern slope of Blossom island, but does not now 
join the ice-field on the south. Streams of turbid Avater floAV 
from this glacier on each side of the oasis on Avhich Ave stand 
and unite at the mouth of a dark tunnel in the ice toAvard the 
scmth. 

Tlie l)arren gravel plain just east of our station, and at the 
loot of the glacier from the north, is the bed of a glacial lake 
which has been drained through the tunnel in the ice. On oui' 
Avay to Blossom island Ave crossed this area and found that it 
had but recently lost its Avaters. Miniature terraces on the 
gravel banks forming the sides of the basin marked the height 
to which the waters last rose, and all the slopes formerly sub- 
merged Avere covered Avith a thin layer of sediment. On the 
sides of the basin Avhere this fresh lining rests 014 steep slopes 
there are beautiful frettings made by rills in the soft sediment. 
The stream from the glacier now meanders across this sand ))lain, 
dividing as it goes into many bi'anches, which nniteon approach- 



Moiintt^ Aiif/iisfa and Malaspiiui. 117 

ill"- the dark archway l)elow. The lake is extremely irregular iu 
its l)ehavior, and may l)e filled and emptied several times in a 
season. The waters are either restrained or flow freely, aeeord- 
ing as the tunnel through which they discharge is ol^structed or 
open. The lake is typical of a class. Similar basins may be 
found about many of the spurs projecting into the Malaspina 
glacier. 

A little west of the glacier to which I have directed your atten- 
tion there is a narrow mountain gorge occupied by another 
glacier, of small size but having all the principal characteristics 
of even the largest Alpine glaciers of the region. It is less than 
half a mile in length, has a high grade, and is fed by several 
lateral branches. Its surface is divided into an ice region below 
and a neve region above. It has lateral and medial moraines, 
ice pinnacles, crevasses, and many other details peculiar to 
glaciers. From its extremity, which is dark with dirt and stones, 
there flows a stream of turl:)id water. It is, in fact, a miniature 
similitude of the ice-streams on the neighl)oring mountain, some 
of which are forty or fifty miles in length and many times wider 
in their narrowest part than tlie little glacier before us is long. 
The more thoroughly we become acquainted with the mountains 
of southern Alaska the more interesting and more numerous do 
the Alpine glaciers of the third order Itecome. Already, thou- 
sands could be enumerated. 

I will not detain my imaginary companion longer with local 
details, but turn at once to the objects wdiich will ever be the 
center of attraction to visitors who may chance to reach this 
remote island in the ice. Looking far up the Marvine glacier, 
beyond the tapering pinnacles and rugged peaks about its head, 
you will see spires and cathedral-like forms of the purest white 
projected against the northern sky. They recall at once the 
ecclesiastic architecture of the Old Wo],id ; ])ut instead of being 
dim and folded by time they seem built of innnaculate marl^le. 
They have a grandeur and repose seen only in mountains of the 
first magnitude. The cathedral to the right, with the long roof- 
like crest and a tapering spire at its eastern terminus, is Mount 
Augusta ; its elevation is over 18,000 feet. A little to the west, 
and equally beautiful l)ut slightly less in elevation, is Mount 
Malaspina — a worthy monument to the unfortunate navigator 
whose name it bears. These peaks are on the main St. Elias 
range, but from our present point of view they form only the 

17— Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. Ill, 1801. 



118 /. C. Rii.^>iell—E.ri)rditinn to Mount Sf. E/ias. 

background of a magnificent i)icturc. liatcr in the season our 
tents wpvo ])itche(l at tlieir very l)ases, and they then revealed 
their full grandeur and fullilled every pnhnise given by distant 
views. 

The rugged Ilitc-hcock i-angc hordering tlu' distant margin of 
the Marvine glacier, like the mountains near at hand and the 
rocky island on which we stand, is com})Osed of sandstone and 
shale. h\it presents one interesting feature, to which I shall direct 
your attention. The trend of the range is northeast and south- 
west, l)Ut the strata of whicli it is composed run cast and west 
and are inclined northward. As the range is some eight miles 
long, these conditions would seem to indicate a thickness of many 
thousands of feet for the rocks of whicli it is com])osed ; yet the 
l)eds were deposited in horizontal slieets of sand and mud of 
very •late date, as will l)e shown farther on. lUit the great 
apparent thickness of the strata is dece))tive: a nearer examina- 
tion would reveal the fact that the rocks have been so greatly 
crushed that even a hand specimen can scarcely he lu'oken olf 
with fresh surfaces. More than this, the l)lack shale, exhibiting 
the greatest amount of crushing, is usually in wedge-shai)ed 
masses, which, in some cases at least, are l)ordered by what are 
known as thrust planes, nearly coinciding with the Ix'dding 
planes ofthestrata. The rocks havel)een fractured and rrushed 
together in such a way as to pile fragments of the same layer on 
top of each other, and thus to increase greatly their apparent 
thickness. In the elevations befon^ us the thrust ]tlanes are 
tipi)ed northeastwardly, and it would seem that the force that 
produced them acted from that direction. The ai)parent thick- 
ness of the beds has thus been increased many times. What 
their original thickness was, it is not now possible to say. Similar 
indications of a lateral crushing in the rocks may be found in 
several of the mountain spurs between the Hitchcock range and 
Yakutat bay; but s])ace will not pei'iuit me to follow this sub- 
ject further. 

Turning from the mountains, we direct our eyes seaward ; I))it 
it is a sea of ice that nieet-^ oui' view and not tlie blue Pacific. 
I'^ar as the eye can reach toward the west, toward the south, and 
towai'd the southeast there is nothing in view hut a vast i)lateau 
of ic(! or barren debris fields resting on \cv and concealing it from 
view. This is the Malaspina glacier. 

On the boi'dei' of the ice, just below the cliffs on whidi we 



(Jairlrns on the Glaciers. 



119 



stand, tliere is a l)clt of debris perhaps five miles in l)readth, 
whicli almost completely conceals the ice beneath. Portions of 
this moraine are covered by vegetation, and in ])]aces it is 1)rill- 




isf ^^^r^: '''MW^:y 



FiGUKE 2 — View of (I (jhiclul Ldkclef {dmirnfrom a Photograph). 



iant with flowers. The vegetation is most alnmdant on the 
nearer border and fades away toward the center of the glacier. 
Its distant border, adjacent to the white ice-field beyond, is 



120 



/. ( '. nn>^><rl! — Erpnl'ifinn in 3foinif St. /-^liaft. 



absolutely hare and drsnlatc. An attciniil lias liccn made to re- 
produce this Scene in tlie picture t'oi-niinL!,- i)late 10. The drawing- 
is from a pliotograiih and shows the harren del)ris liehl stretdi- 
iu«i- away towards the southwest. The extreme southern end of 
tlie Hitclicock rano-e a]»pears at tlie rialit. In the distance is ific 
white ice of the c(>nti'al part of tlie Mala-^jjina Lilacicr. I-'ar lie- 
yond, faintly outlined a.:iaiust the sky, are the snow-covered hills 
west of Icy hay. The tlowers in the Ibreirround are arowinu- on 
tlie ci'est of the stecji lilulf liorderini;' l)loss(»iii island on the south. 
On the moraino-covered portion, especially wiu're plants Invve 
taken root, there are Inuidreds, perhaps thousands, of lakelets 
occupying kettle-shaped depressions. A view of one of these 
interesting reservoirs in the ice is given in figure 2. If we should 
go down to the glacier and examine such a lakelet near at hand, 
we should find that the cliffs of ice sui-rovuiding them are usually 
unsymmetrical. being especially stec]) and I'ugLred on on(> side 




Figure o — Section of <t (jIik-'kiI Inki'lrt. 



and low or perhaps wanting entirely on the other. Rut there 
is no regularity in this respect; the steep slopes may face in any 
direc-tion. On bright days tlu' encircling walls are always driji- 
ping with water produced by the melting of the ice; little rills 
arc constantly flowing down their sides and jilunging in minia- 
ture cataracts into the lake below ; the stones at the top of the 
ice-cliff's, belonging to the general sheet of del)ris covering the 
glacier, are continually being undermined and precii)itated into 
the water. A curious I'act in relci'eiicc to the walls of the lakelets 
is that the melting of the ice l)elow the surface is more rapid 
than above, where it is exi)Osed to the direct rays of the sun. 
As a result the depressions lia\"e the Ibnii of an hour-glass, as 
indicated in the accomjianying section. 

Jk\vond the ))ordering moraines at oui' feet, we can look far out 
over the ice-(»latcau and view liundretjs of s(|uare miles of its 



Piedmont Glaciers. 121 

frozen surface. At the same time we obtain glimpses of other 
vast ice-fields toward the west, beyond Icy bay ; but their limits 
in that direction are unknown. 

Later in the season I made an excursion far out on the ^lalas- 
pina glacier from the extreme southern end of the Hitchcock 
range, and became acquainted Avith many of its peculiarities. Its 
surface, instead of being a smooth snow-field, as it appears from 
a distance, is roughened b}' thousands of crevasses, many of 
which are filled with clear, blue water. Over hundreds of scjuare 
miles the surface appears as if a giant plow had passed over it, 
leaving the ice furrowed with crevasses. The crevasses are not 
broad ; usually one can cross them at a bound. They appear to 
be the scars left by rents in the tril:)utary ice-streams. 

The stillness far out on the great ice-field is immediately 
noticed by one who has recently traversed the sloping surfaces 
of the tributary glaciers. It is always silent on that vast frozen 
plateau. There are no surface streams and no lakes ; not a rill 
murmurs along its channel of ice ; no cascades are formed by 
streams plunging into moulins and crevasses. The water pro- 
duced by the melting of the ice finds its way down into the 
glacier and perhaps to its bottom, and .must there form rivers of 
large size ; but no indications of their existence can be obtained 
at the surface. The icy surface is undulating, and resembles in 
some respects the great rolling prairies of the west ; it is a prairie 
of ice. In the central portion not a shoot of vegetation casts its 
shadow, and scarcely a fragment of rock can be found. The 
1 )oundaries of the vast plateau have never been surveyed, but its 
area cannot he less than five hundred square miles. The clear 
ice of the center greatly exceeds the extent of the moraine-cov- 
ered borders. It has a general elevation of fifteen or sixteen 
hundred feet, being highest near the end of the Hitchcock range, 
where the Seward glacier comes in, and decreasing from there in 
all directions. From the summit of Blossom island and other 
commanding stations it is evident that the dark moraine belts 
about its borders are compound and record a varied history. 
Far away toward the southeast the individual elements may be 
distinguished. The dark bands of debris sweep around in great 
curves and concentric, swirl-like figures, which indicate that there 
are complicated currents in the seemingly motionless plateau. 

The ]SIalaspina glacier l)elongs to a class of ice bodies not pre- 



122 /. ('. Riisi^rJI—KrprrJifion to Mmnif St. Flia^i. 

viously recognized, which are formed at tlie liases of mountains 
l)ythe union of several glaciers fromal)ove. Their jxjsition sug- 
gests tlie iiauie of Piedmont yladerx for the type. Tlu'V differ 
from continental glaciers in the fact tliat tliey are formed hy the 
union of ire-streams and are not the sources from whicli ice- 
streams ilow. Tlic supply from the tributary glacier is counter- 
halanced hy melting and evajioration. 

If the reader has become interested in the vast ice-fields a})out 
Blossom island, he may wish to continue our acfiuaintance and 
go with me into the great snow-fields on the higher mountains, 
where the ice-rivers feeding the Malaspina glacier liave their 
sources. 

Life Abovk the Snow- Link. 

]']arly on the morning of August 2, all necessary i>rei)aration.s 
having been made the day previous, we started in the direction 
of the great snow peak to be seen at the head of the Mar^•ine 
glacier, w'here we hoped to find a pass leading through the moun- 
tains which would enable us to reach the foot of Mount St. Elias 
or to discover a practicalile way across the main range into the 
uidvuown country toward tlie north. 

All of the camp hands were with us at the start, except Stamy 
and \Miite, who had been despatched to Port jNIulgrave to ])ur- 
chase shoes. All but Crumback and Lindslcv were to return to 
Blossom island, however, after leading their loads at a ren- 
dezvous as far from Blossom island as could be reached in a day 
and allow sufficient time to return to the bas(!-camp. Kerr and 
myself, with the two camp hands mentioned, were to press on to 
the snow-fields above. A\'e took with us a tent, blankets, rations, 
an oil-stove, and a supply of coal oil, and felt e<iual to any 
emergency that might arise. 

The morning of our departure was thick and Ibggy, with occa- 
sional showers, and the weather grew worse instead of better as 
we advanced. All the mountains were scxni shut out from view 
hy the vast va^xn- banks that settled down from above, and we 
had little except the general character of the glacier to guide us. 

Our way at first led u]) the eastern border of the Marvine 
glacier, over seemingly interminable fields of angular dt'bi-is. 
Traveling on the rugged moraine, some idea of which may be 
obtained from i)late 17, was not only tiresome in the extreme, 
but ruinous to IxHjts and shoes. On passing the mouth of the 



Ascent of the Marvuie Glacier. 123 

first lateral gorge (about a mile from Blossom island), from 
which flows a secondary glacier, we could look up the bed of the 
steep ravine to the white precipices beyond, which seemed to 
descend out of the clouds, and were scarred by avalanches ; l)ut 
all of the higher peaks were shrouded from view. At noon we 
passed the mouth of a second and larger gorge, which discharges 
an imj^ortant tributar3^ We then left the border of the glacier 
and traveled up its center, the crevasses at the embouchures of 
the tributary stream being too numerous and too wide to be 
crossed without great difficulty. 

In the center of the Marvine glacier there is a dark medial 
moraine, composed mainly of debris of gabbro and serpentine, 
of the same character as the medial moraine on the Hayden 
glacier, already briefly mentioned. Here, too, we found Inroad 
areas covered with sand cones and glacial tables. There are also 
rushing streams, flowing in channels of ice, which finally plunge 
into crevasses or in well-like moulins and send back a deep roar 
from the caverns l^eneath. The murmurs of running waters, 
heard on every hand, seem to indicate that the whole glacier is 
doomed to melt away in a single season. 

Early in the afternoon we reached the junction of the two main 
branches of the Marvine glacier, and chose the most westerly. 
We were still traveling over hard blue ice in which the blue and 
white vein-structure characteristic of glaciers could be plainly 
distinguished. The borders of the ice-streams were dark with 
lateral moraines ; but after passing the last great tributary com- 
ing in from the northeast we reached the upper limit of the 
glacier proper and came to the lower border of the neve fields, 
above which there is little surface debris. The glacier there floAVS 
over a rugged descent, and is greatly broken by its fall. At first 
we endeavored to find a passage up the center of the crevassed 
and pinnacled ice, but soon came to an impassable gvilf. Turn- 
ing toward the right, we traversed a ridge of ice between profound 
gorges and reached the base of the i:\^ountain slope bordering the 
glacier on the east. Our party was now divided ; Christie and his 
companion were left searching for a convenient place to leave the 
cans of rations they carried, while we, who were to explore the 
regions above, were endeavoring to find a way up the ice-fall. 
A shout from our companions below called our attention to the 
fact that they were unaljle to reach the l)order of the glacier, 
where they had l)een directed to leave their packs, and that they 



12-L /. ('. Ji'ussrN — Krindlf/oii l'» Mniinl Sf. FAim. 

lia<l left tlicui on the open ice. They \\a\('il us •• uood-Kyc "" and 
started back toward Blo.^som island, Icaviiiii' <>ur little band of 
four to make the advance. 

Descending into a deep black gorge at the border of the ice, 
formed by its melting back from the bordering cliffs, we clam- 
bered upward beneath overhanging ice-walls, from which .stones 
and fragments of ice were occasionally dropi)ing, and finally 
reached a great snow-bank on the l)order of the glacier. As the 
storm still continued, and was even increasing in force, we con- 
cluded to find a camping ground soon as possil)le and make our- 
selves comfortable as the circumstances would permit. 

First Caimp ix the 8.\ow. 

We had now reached the lower limit of ])erpetual snow. There 
were no more moraines on the surface of the glacier, and no bare 
rock surfaces large enough to hold a tent. The entire region 
was snow-mantled as fjir as the eye could see, except Avhere 
pinnacles and cliff's too steep and rugged for the snow to accu- 
mulate rose above the general surface. A little to one side of 
the mouth of a steep lateral gorge we found a spot in which a 
mass of partly disintegrated shale had fallen down from the cliff'. 
We scraped the fragments aside, smoothed the snow beneatli, 
and built a wall of rock along the lower margin. Tlie sjjace 
al)ove was filled in with fragments of shale, so as to form a shelf 
on which to })itch our tent. Soon our blankets were spread, 
with our water-proof coats for a substratum, and supper was i)re- 
pared over the oil-stove. 

Darkness settled down over the mountains, and the storm in- 
creased as the night came on. .What is unusual in Alaska, 
the rain fell in torrents, as in the tro])ic.s'. Our little tent of 
light cotton cloth afforded great ])rotection, hut the i-ain-dmps 
beat on it with such force that the si)ray was driven through and 
made a fine rain within. Weary with many hours of hard trav- 
eling over moraines and across crevassed ice, and in an atmos- 
phere saturated with moisture, we rolled ourselves in our blankets, 
determined to rest in spite of the storm that raged about. 

As the rain became heavier, the avalanches, already alarmingly 
numerous, became more and more frequent : A crash like 
thunder, followed by the clatter of falling stones, told that many 
tons of ice and rocks on the mountains to the westward had slid 



A ^tonn on tlie Moimtain^. 125 

down upon the borders of the glacier ; another roar near at hand, 
caused by an avalanche on our own side of the glacier, Avas fol- 
lowed by another, another, and still another out in the darkness, 
no one could tell where. The wilder the storm, the louder and 
more frequent became the thunder of the avalanches. It seemed 
as if pandemonium reigned on the mountains. One might fancy 
that the evil spirits of the hills had prepared for us a reception 
of their own liking — but decidedly not to the taste of their 
visitors. Soon there was a clatter and whiz of stones at our 
door. Looking out I saw rocks as large as one's head bounding 
past within a few feet of our tent. The stones on the mountain 
side above had been loosened by the rain, and it was evident 
that our perch was no longer tenable. Before we could remove 
our frail shelter to a place of greater safety, a falling rock struck 
the alpenstock to which the ridge-rope of our tent was fastened 
and carried it away. Our tent " went by the board," as a sailor 
would say, and we were left exposed to the j^ouring rain. Before 
we could gather up our blankets they were not only soaked, but, 
a bushel or more of mud and stones from the bank above, pre- 
viously held back l^y the tent, flowed in upon them. Rolling 
up our blankets and " caching " the rations, instruments, etc., 
under a rubber cloth held down by rocks, we hastily dragged 
our tent-cloth down to the l^order of the glacier, at the extremity 
of a tapering ridge, along which it seemed impossil)le for stones 
from above to travel. We there pitched our tent on the hard 
snow, without the luxury of even a few handfuls of shale 
beneath our blankets. Wet and cold, we sought to wear the 
night away as best we could, sleep being impossible. Crumback, 
who had been especially energetic in removing the tent, regard- 
less of his own exposure, was wet and became cold and silent. 
The oil-stove and a few rations were brought from the cache at 
the abandoned camp, and soon a dish of coffee was steaming and 
filling the tent with its delicious odor. Our shelter became com- 
fortably warm and the hot coff"ee, acting as a stimulant, restored 
our sluggish circulation. We passed an uncomfortaljle night 
and watched anxiously for the dawn. Toward morning a cold 
wind swept down the glacier and the rain ceased. With the 
dawn there came indications that the storm had passed, altliough 
we were still enveloped in dense clouds and could not decide 
whether or not a favorable change in the weather had occurred. 
We were still cold and wet and the desire to return to Blossom 
18— Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. III, 1891. 



12G I. (J. Jiii-'<x(l( — I'J.rpa/ition fo Modid ISt. EHa><. 

island, Avhcre all Avas sunshine and summer, was great. Uncer- 
tain as to what would he the Avisest course, Ave ])acked our 
hlankets and started slowly down the mountain, looking anx- 
iously for signs that the storm liad really i)assed. 

An hour after sunrise a rift in the mist ahoA'e us revealed the 
Avonderful hlue of the heavens, and allowed a Hood of sunlight 
to pour doAvn u])on the Avhite fields heneath. Never was the 
August sun more welcome. The mists vanished 1)efore its magic 
touch, leaving here and there fleecy A'apor-Avreaths festooned along 
the mountain side ; as the clouds disappeared, i)eak after i)eak 
came into vicAV, and snoAV-domes and glaciers, never seen before, 
one by one revealed themselves to our astonished eyes. \\'hen 
the curtain Avas lifted Ave found ourselves in a ncAV world, more 
Avild and rugged than any Ave had yet beheld. There Avas 
not a tree in sight, and nothing to suggest green fields or floAvery 
hill-sides, except on a fcAV of the loAver mountain s})urs, Avhere 
l)rilliant Al}»ine blossoms added a touch of color to the i)ale land- 
scape. A\\ else Avas stern, silent, motionless Avinter. 

The glacier, clear and Avliite, Avithout a rock on its broken sur- 
face, looked from a little distance like a vast snoAV-covered 
meadoAV. We Avere al)Out a mile aboA'e the loAver limit of the 
snoAV-fields, Avhere the blue ice of the glacier comes out from be- 
neath the neve. The blue ice was deeply buried, and could only 
be seen in the deepest crevasses. Across the glacier rose the 
angular cliffs and tapering sjnres of the Hitchcock range. Every 
ravine and gulch in its rugged sides was occupied by glaciers,' 
many of Avhich Avere so lyroken and crcA'assed that they looked 
like frozen cataracts. 

Cheered by the bright skies and sun-Avarmed air, Ave pushed 
on up the glacier, taking the center of the stream in order to 
avoid the cre\'asses, Avhich Avere most numerous along its borders. 
Tavo or three miles above our first camp avc found a ))lace Avhere 
a thin layer of broken shale covered the suoav, at a sullicient dis- 
tance from the steep slopes above to be out of the reach of ava- 
lanches. ^Wl there estaldished our second camp after leaving 
lilossom island, dried our Itlankets, and spent tlie remainder of 
the day basking in the sunlight and gathering energy for coming 
emergencies. 

^^'e found the neve of the Marvine glacier dill'ering greatly 
IVoni the lower or icy portion previously traversed. Instead of 
ice with blue and white l)ands, as is common lower doAvn, the 



Siraiification of the Neve. 127 

entire surface, and as far down in the crevasses as the eye could 
disting-uish, was composed of compact snow, or snow changed 
to icy particles resemljling hail and having in reality l)ut few of 
the properties of ordinary snow : it might properly be called 
neve ice. Usually the thickness of the layers varied from ten to 
fifteen feet. Separating them were dark lines formed b}^ dust 
l>lown over the surfiice of the glacier and buried by subsequent 
snow-storms, or by thin blue lines formed by the edges of sheets 
of ice and showing that the snow surface had been melted during 
Ijright sunny days and frozen again at night. The horizontal 
stratification so plainly marked in all the crevasses in the neve 
was almost entirely wanting, or at least was not conspicuous, in 
the lower portion of the glacier, where, instead, we found those 
narrow blue and white bands already mentioned, the origin of 
which has been so well described and cxjilained by Tyndall. 

The center of the Marvine glacier, as in most similar ice- 
streams, is higher and less broken by crevasses than its borders. 
The crevasses at the side trend up stream, as is the case with 
marginal crevasses generally. In the present instance the courses 
of these rents could be plainly distinguished on each border of 
the glacier, when looking down upon it from neighboring slopes. 
The crevasses occur at quite regular intervals of approximately 
fifty feet, and diverge from the bank at angles of about 40°. In 
the banks of snow bordering the glacier similar crevasses diverge 
from the margin of the flowing glacier and trend down along its 
banks. The marginal crevasses and the crevasses in the border- 
ing snow-fields, to which no special name has been given, fall 
nearly in line ; but between the two there is a series of irregular 
cracks and l)roken snow, shar})ly defining the border of the 
moving neve. 

The origin of the marginal crevasses trending up stream was 
explained during the study of the glaciers of Switzerland. The 
following diagram and explanation illustrating their development 
are copied from Tyndall : 

" Let ^f C be one side of the glacier and B D tlie otlier ; and let the direc- 
tion of motion be that indicated by tlie arrow. Let >S T be a transverse 
slice of the glacier, taken straiglit across it, say to-day. A few days or 
weeks hence the slice will have been carried down, and because the center 
moves more quickly than the sides it will not remain straight, but will 
bend into the form >S'' T^. Supposing T i to he a small square of the original 
slice near the side of the glacier ; in the new isosition the square will be 
distorted to the lozenge-shaped figure T' /'. Fix your attention upon the 



128 /. a Rimcll-' Expedition, to Mount *S7. Klias. 

diagonal T I of the Hi(]uare ; in the lower position this diagonal, (/' the ice 
could stretch, would be lengthened to T^ i'. But the ice does not stretch ; 
it breaks, and we have a crevasse formed at riglit angles to T^ V. The mere 
insi)ection of the diagram will assure you that the crevasse will point 

obliqui'ly iijiininl." * 



"■m — ^ 









B T T' D 

Figure 4 — Dhigrdin illtistrntiiH/ tlte Formation of innr(jin<d Crerasses. 

The exi)laniition given al)Ovc applies especially to the lower 
or icy portion of a glacier ; a])ove the snow-line other focts a])pear. 
When a glacier flows through fields of snow^ on a level with its 
surface, crevasses are formed in the adjacent banks. These trend 
down stream for the same reason that the crevasses in the glacier 
})roi)er trend up stream — that is, the friction of tlu' moving 
stream against its l^anks tends to carry them along, while the 
jjortions at a distance are stationary. Fissures are thus opened 
which trend in the direction in which the glacier moves. The 
angle made by these crevasses with the axis of the glacier is 
about the same as those of the marginal crevasses, but in an 
opposite direction. They are widest near the margin of the 
glacier and taper to a sharp end towards the stationary snow- 
banks above. The crevasses in the two series thus- fall nearly 
in line, but are separated by a narrow band of irregularly Itroken 
snow', marking the actual border of the glacier, f 

After leaving Blossom island the party was divided, and we 
began a new series of numl)ers for our cam[) above the snow-Une, 
although in this narrative and on the accom])anying map a single 
series of numl)ers ibr all the camps will he used. AAdiile in the 
field the camps in the snow Avere usually termed, facetiously, 
" sardine camps," in allusion to the uncomfortable manner in 
which we were packed in our tent at night. 



*The Forms of Water : International Scientific Series, New York, 1875, 
pp. 107-108. 

t Crevasses in suow-ficlds through whicli icc-stii'nins lluw will be men- 
tioiied au'ain in descriliinu' tlic Seward glacier. 



Across Pinnacle Pass. 

The morning after reaching Camp 12 dawned gloriously hright- 
The night had been cold, and a heavy frost had silenced every 
rill from the snow-slopes above. The clear, bracing air gave us 
renewed energy and a firmer desire to press on. Mr. Kerr and 
myself made an excursion ahead, while Lindsey and Cruml)ack 
brought up a load of supplies from the caohe left on the glacier 
below Camp 11. 

On gaining the center of the Marvine glacier we had a mag- 
nificent view down the broad ice-stream, bordered on either hand 
by towering, snow-laden precipices, and changing, as the eve t\)l- 
lowed the down^^a^rd slope, from pure white to brown and black 
in the distance. Far below we could barely discern the wooded 
summit of Blossom island, beyond which stretched the seem- 
ingly limitless ice-fields of the Malaspina glacier. All about us 
the white slope reflected the sunlight with painful l)rilliancy, 
while the black moraines and forests below and the mists over 
the distant ocean, made it seem as if one was looking down into 
a lower and darker Avorld. 

As we advanced toward the head of the glacier we found, as 
on several subsequent occasions, that the nearer avc approached 
the sources of an ice-stream the easier our progress became. 
Following up the center of the glacier, we learned that it curved 
toward the east ; and after an hour or two of weary tramping we 
reached the great amphitheatre in which it has its source. All 
about us were rugged mountain slojjes, heavily loaded with snow, 
and forming clear white cliffs from which avalanches had de- 
scended. To the westward the wall of the amphitheatre was 
broken, and it was apparent that we could cross its rim in that di- 
rection. Pressing onward up the gently ascending slope, we came 
at length to a gap in the mountains bordered on the north by a 
towering cliff fully a thousand feet high, and were rejoiced to find 
that the snow surface on the opposite side of the divide inclined 
westward with a grade as gentle as the one we had ascended. 
Looking far down the western snow-slope, we covild see where it 
joined a large glacier flowing southward past the end of the great 
cliffs which extended westward from the divide. The glacier we 
saw in the valley below is designated on our map as the Seward 
glacier, in honor of William H. Seward, the former Secretary of 
State, Avho negotiated the purchase of Alaska for the United 
States. 

(129) 



130 



/. ('. JiU-'<sr!l — Kxprdifioii in Moiiiif Sf. /-JHfiK. 



The pciBS we named Pinnacle pax^i, on account of the many tow- 
ering pinnacles overshadowing it. Tts elevation is aliout four 
thousand feet, and at the summit it has a l)i't'a(Uli ot" only two oi- 
three hundred feet. The snow on the divide is lireatly crevassed, 
hut a convenient snow-hridge enal)lcd us to ci'oss without difli- 
culty. The crevasses increased in hveadtli with the advance of 
the seast)n, and on returninu; from our mountain trip in Septem- 
her we had to clind) up on the l)orderin<i- chtf in order to jjass 
tlu' maiii crevasse at the s'uiinnit. Sonu' idea of the crevasses of 
tliis region may he obtained from the following figure, drawn 
from a ])hot()gra]ih taken on the western side of Pinnacle })ass, 
not far tVom the siuuniit. 



#«!| 










^CSi'i-C*> v.\\ 



Fku'KE o — CWrasses on Pinnacle P«,s-s; from a Pholognijili. 

The cliif on the north of Pinnacle pass is really a huge fault- 
scarp of recent date, intersecting stratified shale, limestone, and 
conglomerate, Avith a few thin coal-seams. The strata dip toward 
the north at a high angle, and present their broken edges in the 
great cliff rising above the pass. The el ill's extend westward 
from the jjass, and retain a nearly horizontal crest line, but in- 
crease in height and grandeur, owing to the downward grade 
of the glacier along their base. Annie to the westwai'd Iheir 
elevation is fnll\- two thonsand feet. The clids throULihonf are 



Yakufaf and Pinuadc Systems. 131 

almost everywhere l)are of snow and too steo}) and rugged to be 
scaled. They form a strongly drawn l)Oundary line in the 
geology of the region, arid furnish the key to the structure and 
geological character of an extended area. All the rocks to the 
southward are sandstone and shale belonging to a well-defined 
series, and differ materially from the rocks in the fault-scarp. I 
have called the rocks toward the south, the Yakutat system, and 
those exposed in the faces of the fault-scarp the Pinnacle sys- 
tem. Directly north of Pinnacle pass, and at the base of Mount 
Owen, the rocks of the Yakutat system are exposed, and from 
their position and association it is eyident that they are younger 
than the Pinnacle system and belong aboye it. If these con- 
clusions are sustained by future investigation, they will carry 
with them certain deductions which are among the most remark- 
able in geological history. On the crest of the Pinnacle pass 
cliffs I afterwards found strata containing fossil shells and leaves 
l)elonging to species still living. These records of animal and 
plant life show that not only were the rocks of the Pinnacle sys- 
tem deposited since living species of niollusks and plants came 
into existence, l:)ut that the Yakutat system is still more recent. 
More than this, the upheaval of the mountains, the formation of 
numerous fault-scarps, and the origin of the glaciers, have all 
occurred since Pliocene times. 

The discovery of Pinnacle pass left no question as to the route 
to be traversed in order to reach the mountains to the westAvard. 
We returned to Camp 12, and the following day, with Crumback 
and.Lindsley to assist us, advanced our camp across Pinnacle 
pass and far down the western snow-slope. 

The day we crossed the pass was bright and clear in the morn- 
ing, l)ut clouds gathered around all the higher peaks about mid- 
day, vanishing again at nightfall. As it was desirable to occuj^y, 
for topographic and other purposes, a station on the top of the 
cliffs overlooking Pinnacle pass, we made an effort to reach the 
crest of the ridge by climl)ing up the steep scarp just at the 
divide, where the cliffs are lowest. While Orund)ack returned 
to Camp 12 for an additional load and Lindsley went aliead to 
discover a new camping jjlace, Kerr and myself, taking the neces- 
sary instrunients, began the ascent ; ])ut we found it exceedingly 
difficult. The outcrops of shale in the lower portion of the cliff 
furnished but poor footln^ld, and crumbled and broke away at 
every step. Once my companion, losing his support, slid slowly 



lo2 y. ('. Hii^scll—Ej-palilinn In Mnimt Si. Ellnx. 

down the sl()}>e in spite of vi.u'orous etibrtis to hold on, and a lapid 
deseent in the yawning chasm beloAv seemed inevitabk', when, 
coming to a sliglitiy rougher surface, he was able to control his 
movements and to regain what had l)een lost, ('liml)ing on, we 
came to the l)<1se of a vertical wall of shale several hundred feet 
high, and made a detour to the left where a cascade plunged down 
a narrow channel, ^^"e ascended the l)ed of the stream, which 
Avas sometimes so stee]) that the spray dashed over us, and 
readied tln' ha-e of an overhauling clill" of conglomerate com- 
})osed of well-worn pebl)les. Al:)ove this rose a cliff of snow fifty 
feet or moi'c in height, which threatened to crash down in ava- 
lanclies at any moment. One small avalanche did occur dui'ing 
the ascent, and scattered its spray in our faces. Had a heavy 
avalanche formed, our ]iosition would have been exceedingly dan- 
gerous ; but by taking advantage of every overhanging ledge, 
ami watching for the least sign of movement in the snow above, we 
reached without accident a sheltered perch underneath an over- 
hanging cliff near the l)ase of the snow. We then discovered 
that clouds were forming on all the high mountains, and shreds 
of vapor blown over the crest of the <'lilf above told us that fur- 
ther efforts would 1)C useless. Becking a perch protected from 
avalanches by an overhanging cliff, we had a splendid view far out 
over the sloping snow-plain toAvard the west and of the moun- 
tains l)ordering Pinnacle pass on the south. INly notes Avritten 
in this connnanding station read as follows: 

''Looking down from my })erch I can plainly distinguish the 
undidations and crevasses in the broad snoAV-iields stretching 
Avestward from Pinnacle pass. Each inequality in the rock be- 
neath tlu' glacier is reproduced in llowing and subdued outlines 
in tlie Avhite surface above. The jiositions of bosses and cliffs 
in the rock beneath are indicated by rounded domes and steep 
descents in the snow sui'face. Al)out the loAver sides of these 
inequalities there are in some cases concentric blue lines and in 
others radiating fissures, marking Avhere the snoAV lias broken in 
making the descent. The side light shining from the eastAvard 
doAvn the long Avesterly slo])e reveals by its delicate shading the 
presence of l)road, terrace-like, transverse steps into Avhich the 
stream is divided. Wqxh the suoav removed and the rock he- 
neath exposed, Ave should find broad terraces sejoarated by scarps 
sweeping across the bed of the glacier from side to side. Similar 
terraces occur in ulaciated canons in tlie.Rockv Mountains and 



Vieio from Pinnacle Pass. 133 

the Sierra Nevada, but their origin has never been explained. The 
glacier is here at work sculpturing similar forms ; l)ut still it is 
impossible to understand how the process is initiated. 

" Right in front of us, and only a mile or two away, rise the 
cliffs, spires, and pinnacles of the Hitchcock range. Every ravine 
and amphitheatre in the great- mountain mass is deeply filled 
with snow, and the sharp angular crests look as if they had been 
thrust up through the general covering of white. The northern 
end of the range is clearly defined by the east-and-west fault to 
which Pinnacle pass owes its origin. The trend of the mighty 
cliffs on the southern face, on Avhich we have found a perch, is at 
right angles to the longer axis of the Hitchcock range, and marks 
its northern terminus Ijoth topographically and geologically. 

" There is not even a suggestion of vegetation in sight. The 
eye fails to detect a single dash of green or the glow of a single 
Alpine flower anywhere on the rugged slo23es. A small ava- 
lanche from the snow-cliffs above, cascading over the cliff which 
shelters me and only a few yards SiWSiy, tells why the j^recipices 
are so bare and desolate : the}^ have been swept clean l)y ava- 
lanches. 

" Far down the western snow-slope I can distinguish crevasses 
and dirt bands in the Seward glacier, which flows southward 
past the range on which we sit. The marginal crevasses along the 
l:)order of the glacier can clearly be distinguished. As usual, 
they trend up-stream and, meeting medial crevasses, break the 
surface of the glacier into thousands of pinnacles and tables. 
Along the center of the stream there are V-shaped dirt bands, 
separated b}^ crevasses, which point down-stream and give the 
appearance of a rapid How to the central portion of the glacier. 
From this distance its center has the appearance of ' watered ' 
riljbon. 

"A little toward the south of where the medial crevasses are 
most numerous, and at a h)cality where two op})osite mountain 
spurs force the ice-stream through the comparatively narrow 
gorge, there is evidently an ice-fall, as the whole glacier from 
side to side disappears from view. The appearance of Niagara 
when seen from the banks of the river above the Horseshoe falls 
is suggested. Beyond this silent cataract, the eye ranges far out 
over the broad, level surface of the Malaspina glacier, and traces 
the dark raorainal ribbons streaming away for miles from the 
mountain spurs among which they originate. From the extreme 

19— Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. Ill, 1K91. 



134 /. ('. /^(.s,s(// — Kfjxdltion to Moii./it »S7. Ellas. 

southern cape of the Samovar hills there is a hiiihly compound 
nioraine-l)elt stretchinu- away toward the south, and then divid- 
inu' and eur\ inu' Ixith east and west. The i-entral liand ot'di'liris 
must ))e a mile broad. Along its eastern margin 1 can count 
live lesser bands sei>arated by narrow intervals of ice, and on 
the farther side sinular secondary bands are suggested, hut the 
heiglit of the central range almost completely conceals them 
from view. Jn the distant tattered ends, however, their various 
divisions can be clearly traced. Great swirls in tlie ice arc there 
indicated by concentric curves of debris on its suri'ace. 

" Still fiirthcr westward there arc hills rising In the height of 
impressive mountains, in which northward dipping rocks, ai>par- 
ently of sandstone and shale, similar to those forming the Hitch- 
cock range, are plainly distinguishable. .\11 the northern slopes 
of these hills are deei)ly buried beneath a uni\crsal covering of 
snow evidently hundreds of feet thick, which is molded upe)n 
them so as to reveal every swelling dome and i-avine in their 
rugged sides. Farther westward still, beyond a dark headland 
ai)i)arently washed by the sea, there are other ])road ice-fields 
of the same general character as the Malaspina glacit-r. which 
stretch away for miles and miles and blend in the dim distance 
with the haze of the horizon. 

"Just west of the Seward glacier, and in part Ibrniing its west- 
ern shore, there are dark, rocky crests i)rojecting through the 
universal ice mantle, suggesting the lost mountains of Utah and 
Nevada which ]\-a\o l)ecoine deei>ly buried by the dusts of the 
desert. The character of the sharp crests beyond the Seward 
glacier indicate that they are the U})turned edges of fault-blocks 
similar to the one on which we are seated. Interesting geological 
records are there waiting an interpreter. The vastness of the 
mountains and the snow-fields to be seen at a single glance from 
this point of view can scarcely be realized. There are no familiar 
objects in sight with which to make eye-measurements ; the pic- 
ture is on so grand a scale that it defies imagination's grasp." 

Searching the snow-sheet below with a tield-glass, I discover 
a nunute spot on the white suii'ace. Its movement, slow but 
unmistakable, assures me that it is Lindsley returning from the 
site chosen for our cam]) to-night. Although a])parently near 
at hand, lu' forms Imt an incoitspiciious speck on tlie vast snow- 
field. 



A Diiiirjrroiis Mnimtairi Camp. lo5 

Having learned all that I could of the geology of the cliff", and 
tlie gathering clouds rendering it unnecessary to climh the sum- 
mits above; we descended Vvdth even more difficulty than we had 
encountered on our way up, and met Tindsley as he reached the 
))ass. Resuming our packs, Ave started on, knowing that Crum- 
Itack would follow our trail ; and after two hours' hard tramping 
over a snow surface rendered somewhat soft by the heat of the 
day, l)ut fortunately little crevassed, we reached the place chosen 
for our camp. Cruml^ack soon joined us, and wc pitched our 
tent for the night. The place chosen was on a little island of 
debris, the farthest out we could discover from the base of the 
great cliff on the north. Wc; judged that we should there be 
safe from avalanches, although the screech and hiss of stones 
falling from the cliff were heard many times during the night. 

liindsley and Crumback, on revisiting the site of our camp 
two days later, found that a tremendous avalanche of snow and 
rocks had in the mean time fallen from the cliffs and ploughed 
its way out upon the glacier to within fifteen or twenty feet of 
where we had passed the night. They remarked that if the 
avalanche had occurred while Ave were in camp, our tent would 
not have been reached, but that we should probably have been 
scared to death by the roar. 

First full View of St. Elias. 

Ijcaving C'rum!)ack and Lindsley to make our camp as com- 
fortable as possiV)le, Kerr and I pressed on with the object of 
seeing all Ave could of the country ahead before the afternoon 
sunlight faded into tAvilight. Mount St. Elias: had been shut 
out from vicAV, either by clouds or by intervening mountains, 
for several days ; but it Avas evident that on approaching the end 
of the Pinnacle pass fault-scarp Ave should l^ehold it again, and 
comparatiA'ely near at hand. 

Continuing doAvn the even snoAV-slope, in Avhich there Avere but 
few crevasses, the vicAV Vjecame Ijroader and l)roader as avc ad- 
vanced, and at length the great pyramid forming the culminating 
summit of all the region burst into full vieAV. What a glorious 
siglit! The great mountain seemed higher and grander and 
more regularly projtortioned than any peak I had ever beheld 
before. The Avhite i)lain formed by the SeAvard glacier gave an 
even foreground, broken ]jy crevasses Avhich, lessening in jjer- 
spective, gave distance to the foot-hills forming the Avestern mar- 



136 /. ( '. Hiissr/I — Expcdidoii ((I Moiiiit ,sy. Kim^. 

frin of tlu' glacier. Far ahove the annular crest of the Samovar 
liills in the middle distance towered St. Elias, sharp and clear 
against the evening sky. Midway niithclinal slope a lliin, Imri- 
zontal har of gray clouds was delicately ])enciled. Tlii-oimli the 
meshes of the fairy scarf shone the yellow sunset sky. The 
strong outlines of the rugged mountain, which had withstood 
centuries of storms and earthquakes, were softened and glorified 
by the breath of the summer winds, chilled as they kissed its 
crystal slopes. 

Could I give to the reader a tithe of tlu' impressions that such 
a view suggests, they would declare that painters had never 
shown them mountains, but only hills. So majestic was St. 
Elias, with the halo of the sunset about his brow, that other 
magnificent peaks now seen for the first time or more fully re- 
vealed than ever before, although worthy the respect and homage 
of the most experienced mountain-climber, scarceh' received a 
second glance. 

Returning to camp, we passed the night, and the following 
day, August (i, advanced our camp to the eastern l)order of the 
Seward glacier at the extreme western end of the upturne<l crest 
forming the northern wall of Pinnacle ])ass. 

The western end of the Pinnacle pass cliff' is turned a1)rui)tly 
northward, and the rocks dip eastward at a high angle, showing, 
together with other conditions, that the end of tlu! ridge is 
deterndned by a cross-fault running northeast and southwest. 
West of the Seward glacier there is a continuation of the I'in- 
nacle-pass cliff, but it is greatly out of line. The })osition of tlie 
Seward glacier, in this portion of its course, was determined by 
the fault which broke the alignment of the main dis})lacement. 

Many facts of similar nature show that the glaciers of the St. 
Elias region have had their courses detei-mined, to a large extent, 
by the faults which have given the region its characteristic struc- 
ture : the ice drainage is consequent to the structure of the 
underlying rocks; the glaciers not only did not originate the 
channels in wliich they ilow. but have failed to greatly moilify 
tliem. 

("amp 1 1 was on a sharp crest of limestone, congloniei'alc. and 
shale l)elonging to the Pinnacle system, which was not over 
ten feet broad where our tent was pitche<l. l^ast of our tent there 
was a broad, upward sloping snow-plain banked against tlie 
preci])it()us base of a hill about a thousand feet high. .\t the 
edge of the snow, within three feet of our tent, there was a pond 



Point Glorious. 137 

of clear water, seemingly placed there for our special use. The 
western edge of our tent was at the margin of a cliff about a 
hundred feet high, overlooking the Seward glacier. We held 
this camp for several days and reoccupied it on our return from 
St. Elias. 

Summit of Pinnacle Pass Cliffs. 

From Camp 14 Crumback returned to Blossom island, and 
Stamy took his place. Word from Christie assured me that 
supplies would be advanced to Blossom island, and that our cache 
on the Marvine glacier would be renewed. Stamy's arrival was 
especially welcome for the reason that he l^rought letters from 
dear ones far away, which had been forwarded from Sitka l:)y a 
trading schooner that chanced to visit Yakutat bay. 

While the camp hands were busy in bringing up fresh supplies, 
Kerr and I occupied two stations on the summit of the Pinnacle 
pass cliffs. One of these was on a butte at the western end of 
the ridge and just above our camp ; the other was on the crest 
of the main line of cliffs almost directly above Pinnacle pass, 
at an elevation of 5,000 feet. Each of the stations emliraced 
magnificent views, extending fi'om the outer margin of the Malas- 
pina glacier to the crest of the St. Elias range. The station on 
the l:»utte near camp was occupied several times, and proved to 
be a most convenient and connnanding point for study of the 
geography, geology, and distril)ution of glacier over a wide area. 
On account of the splendid view ol)tained from the top we named 
it Point Glorious. Its elevation is 3,500 feet. 

One of the days on which we occupied Point Glorious was 
especially remarkalile on account of the clearness and freshness 
of the air and the sharpness with which each peak and snow- 
crest stood out against the deep-blue heavens. We left our 
camp early in the morning, and spent several hours on the sum- 
mit. On our way up we found several large patches of Alpine 
flowers and, under a tussock of moss, a soft, warm nest just aban- 
doned l)y a mother ptarmigan with her l)rood of little ones. 
One hundred feet higher Ave came to the borders of the snow- 
field which covered all of the ui)per slopes except a narrow crest 
of sandstone at the top. 

The Seward glacier, sweeping down from the northeast, curves 
about the base of Point Glorious and flows on southward. Its 
surface has the appearance of a wide frozen river. Toward the 



138 f. ('. /i'nxsrn-—l':.rjHlifi,ni lo Mnnnl St. FAUlR. 

east of our station there was a broad, level-tlooretl amphitheatre, 
bounded on the soutli by the clitfs of Pinnacle pass and on the 
east by long snow-slopes which stretch up the gorges in the side 
of Blount Cook. Theainphitlieatre oi)ens toward tlie northwest, 
and diseliarges its a'.'cuinulated snows into the Seward glacier. 
Beyond tliis, on the north, stood tlie great curtain-wall named 
the Corwin clilfs, west of Avliich rose Mount Eaton, Mount iVu- 
gusta, iSIount Malasi)ina, and otlier giant summits of tlie main 
St. Elias range. Toward the west the view culuiinatcd in St. 
Elias itself, ruggedly outlined against the sky. As the reader 
will become more and more familiar with the magnificent scenery 
of the St. Elias region as we advance, it need not be dcscribcil in 
detail at this time. 

All day the skies were clear and bright, giving almndant op- 
portunity for making a detailed survey of the principal features 
in view, and for reading the history written in cliffs and glaciers. 
When tln' long sunnncr day drew to a close, we returned to our 
tent and watched the great ])eaks liecomedim and generalized in 
outline as the twilight deepened. The fading light caused the 
mountains to recede farther and fartlier, until at last they seemed 
ghostly giants, too far away to be definitely recognized. W\i\\ 
tlic twilight came soft, gray, uncertain clouds drawn slowly and 
silently about the rugged ])rccii)iccs by the sunnncr winds from 
the sea. St. E^lias l)ecame enveloped in luminous clouds, with 
the exce])tion of a few hundred feet of the shining sunnnit ; and 
a gloi-y in the sky, to the left of the vcilc(l Saint, marked the 
place where the sun went down. The shadows cre])t across the 
snow-fields and changed them from dazzling white to a soft gray- 
blue. Night came on silently, and with l)Ut little change. There 
was no folding of Avings ; no twittering of birds in leafy branches 'i 
no sighing of winds among rustling leaves. >\11 was stern and 
wild and still ; tbci-e was not a touch of life to relieve the deso- 
lation. A midwinter night in inhal)ited lands was never more 
solemn. Man had never rested there before. 

The air grew chill when the shadows crossed our tent, and 
delicate ice crystals began to shoot on the still surface of our 
little pond. We bade good night to the stern peaks, alxiut 
which there were signs of a coming storm, and sought the shelter 
of our tent. Small and comfortless as was that shelter, it shut 
out the wintry sctnie and affoi'ded a, welcome retreat. Sound, 
refreshing sleei), with dreams of loved ones far away, renewed 
our strentith for another advance. 



Dust-covered Glaciers. 139 

The next day, August 8, a topographic station was occupied 
on the summit of the Pinnacle pass chffs. We were astir before 
sunrise, and had In'cakfast over before four o'clock. The morn- 
ing was cold, and a cutting wind swept down the Seward glacier 
from the northeast. All of the mountains were lost to view in 
dense clouds. A few rays of sunshine breaking through the 
vapor banks above Point Glorious gave promise of better weather 
during the day. Lindsley and Stamy had not yet returned from 
the lower camp, where they were to obtain additional rations ; 
and Kerr and I concluded to try to reach the crest of the Pin- 
nacle pass cliffs and take the chances of the weather being favor- 
able for our work. 

Leaving camj^ in the early morning light, we chose to climb 
over the summit of Point Glorious rather than thread the cre- 
vasses at its northern l)ase. Reaching the U)\) of the point, we 
were still l^eneath the low canopy of clouds, and could see far up 
the great amphitheatre to the base of Moant Oweu/^- Descending 
the eastern slope, we soon reached the floor of the amphitheatre, 
and found the snow smooth and hard and not greatly crevassed. 
C'heered b}' faint promise of blue skies, we pressed on rapidly, 
the snow creaking beneath our tread as on a winter morning. 
Two or three hours of rapid walking brought us to the southern 
wall of the amphitheatre, nearly beneath the point we wished to 
occupy. As we ascended the slope the way became more diffi- 
cult, owing not only to its steepness but also to, the fact that 
the snow was softening, and also because great crevasses crossed 
our path. Looking back over the snow we had crossed, two 
well-characterized features on its surface could l)e distinguished : 
these were large areas with a gray tint, caused by a covering of 
dust. This dust comes from the southern faces of the Pinnacle 
pass cliffs, and is blown over the crest of the ridge and scattered 
far and wide over the snow-fields toward the north. Should the 
dust-covered areas become buried beneath fresh snow, it is evi- 
dent that the strata of snow would be separated by thin layers 
of darker color. This is what has happened many times, as we 
could see by looking down into the crevasses. In one deep gulf 
I counted five distinct strata of clear white snow, separated by 
narrow dust-bancls. In other instances there are twenty or more 
such strata visible. Eacli layer is evidently the record of a snow- 
storm, while the dust-bands indicate intervals of fine weather. 



Named for David Dale Owen, United States geologist. 



140 7. C. ThiKscU—Kxpcdiiion in Mouitf ^y. J'JIias. 

The strata of snow exposed to view in the crevasses, after heing 
jfreatly compressed, are usually from ten to fifteen feet thick, hut 
in one instance exceeded fifty feet. If we assume that each layer 
represents a winter's snow, and that com[)ressi()n ha^ rcducctl 
each stratum to a third of its original thickness (and prohahly 
the compression has heen greater tlian this), it is evident that 
the fresh snows must sometimes reach the depth of tVniii ")l) to 
150 feet. 

Toiling on up the snow-slope, we liad to wind in and out 
among deep crevasses, sometimes crossing tlieni hy narrow snow- 
l)ridges, and again jumping them and plunging our ali)enstocks 
deep in the snow when we reached the farther side. After many 
windings we reached the summit of the Pinnacle-pass cliffs- 
Tlic crest-line is formed of an outcrop of conglomerate composed 
of sand and jx'hhles, in one layer of whicli 1 found hi rge quanti- 
ties of mussel shells standing in the position in which the 
creatures lived. The present elevation of this ancient sea-hottom 
is 5,000 feet. The strata incline northward at angles of 'M)° to 
40°. All of the northern slope of the ridge is deeply covered 
with snow, and the rock only appears ak)ng the immediate crest. 
There are, in fact, two crests, as is common with many mountain 
ridges in this rigion, one of rock and the second of snow ; the 
snow crest, which is usually the higher, is parallel to the rock 
crest and a few rods north of it. In the valley between the two 
ridges we found secure footing, and ascended with ease to the 
highest [)oint on the cliffs. Looking over the southern or rocky 
crest, we found a, sheer descent of about 1,500 feet to the; snow- 
fields below. 

The clouds diminished in density and gradually bi'oke away, 
so that the entire extent of the St. Elias range was in view, with 
the exce})tion of the crowning i)eak of all, which was still veiled 
from base to sununit. A spur of St. Elias, extending southward 
from the main peak, and named 77/r Cfiarlot, gleamed brightly 
in the sunlight. It was the first ])oint on which we made observa- 
tions. Stretching eastward from St. Elias is the sharp crest of 
the main range, on which stand Mounts Newton, Jeannette, 
i\ralas])ina, Augusta, Logan, and s(>veral other splendid peaks 
not yet named. Just to the i-ight of Mount Augusta, on the 
inunediaie l)or(ler of tlie S(nvard glacier, rise the Corwin cliifs, 
marking an inunense fault-scarj) of the saniegeneral character as 
the one on which we stooil. 



On Pinnacle Pass Cliffs. 141 

Mr. Kerr endeavored at first to occupy a station on the crest 
of the rocky ridge, Init as the steejiness of the slope and the 
sliattered condition of the rock rendered the station liazardons, 
the snow-ridge, which was covered with dust and sand and 
nearly as firm as rock, was occupied instead. The clouds j^art- 
ing toward the northeast revealed several giant peaks not before 
seen, some of which seem to rival in height St. Elias itself. One 
stranger, rising in three white domes far a1)0ve the clouds, was 
especially magnificent. As this was probably the first time its 
summit was ever seen, we took the liberty of giving it a name. 
It will appear on our maps as Mount Logan, in honor of Sir 
William E. Logan, founder and long director of the Geological 
Survey of Canada. 

The clouds grew denser in the east, and shut off all ho})e of 
extending the map-work in that direction. While Kerr was 
making topographic sketches I tried to decii)her some of the 
geological history of the region around me and make myself 
more familiar with its glaciers and snow-fields. 

Even more remarkable than the mighty peaks toward the 
north, beheld that day for the first time, was the vast 2:)lateau of 
ice stretching seaward from the foot of the mountains. From 
my station what seemed to be the ocean's shore near Icy bay 
could just be distinguished. Beyond the bay there is a group of 
hills which come boldly down to the sea, and apparently form a 
sea-cliff at the water's edge. Beyond this headland there is an- 
other vast glacier extending westward to the limits of vision. 
The view from this point is essentially the same as that ol)tained 
from the clifi's at Pinnacle pass a few days earlier, except that 
it is far more extended. It need not be described in detail. 

The clouds becoming thicker and settling in dark masses aljout 
the mountains, we gave U}) all hope of further work and started 
for our camp. On the way down the ridge between the crest of 
snow and the crest of rock we found a stratum of sandstone filled 
with fossil leaves, and near at hand another layer charged with 
very recent sea-shells. Collecting all of these that we could carry, 
we trudged on, finding the snow soft and some of the bridges 
which we had easily crossed in the morning now weak, trem- 
bling, and insecure. We crossed them safely, however, and, reach- 
ing the level floor of the amphitheatre, marched wearily on to- 
ward Point Glorious. This time we passed along the northern 
base of the butte at an elevation of two or three hundred feet 

20— Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. Ill, issd. 



142 /. (\ h'lisst// — Expedition to Mount St. FJias^. 

above the glacier, and, taking a (•(invniient slide down i\\v snow- 
slope, reached our tent. 

Soon a delicious cup of coffee was pvejiarcd, l)acon was fried, 
and these were put in a warm place wliiie some grichUe cakes 
were being baked. A wai-m su]»])er. I'ollowed l)y a restful pipe, 
ended the day. Kerr and 1 were our own cooks and oui- own 
housekeepers during much of the time we lived al)ove the snow- 
line. M'e cl(\'vred away the remains of the supper, and prepared 
our lilankets for the night. One of the huge ice pinnacles on tlie 
glacier fell with a great crash just as we were turning in. I Jain 
began to fall, and the night was cold and disagreeable ; how it 
passed I do not know, as I slept soundly. Scarcely anything 
less serious than the blowing away of our tent could have 
awakened me. 

Across Skwaim) Oi.aciki! ro Domi: Pass. 

Stormy weather and the necessity of bi'inging additional su))- 
})lii's iVom Blossom island detained us at Camp 14 until August 
lo. We rose at three o'clock on the morning of that day, and, 
after a hasty breakfast, prepared to cross the Seward glacier. 
The morning was cold but clear, and the air was Ijracing. Each 
peak and mountain crest in the ruggetl landscape stood out 
boldly in the early light, although the sun had not risen. Soon 
the sununit of St. Elias became tip])ed with gold, and then ])eak 
after peak, in order of their rank, caught the radiance, and in a 
short time the vast sno\\-fields were of dazzling splendor. 

The frost of the night before had hardened the snow, which 
made walking a jileasiu'c. We crossed a rocky spur projecting 
northward from Point (dorious into the Seward glacier, and had 
to lower our })acks down the side of the ])recipice with the aid of 
ro})es. Our course led at first \\\) the border of the great glacier 
to a i)oint above the head of th(> ra]>ids already referred to, then 
curved to the westward, and for a mile or two coincidcnl with the 
general trend of the crevasses. Wo made good progress, but at 
length we came to -where the Augusta glacier pours its flood of 
ice into the main stream and, owing to its high grade, is greatly 
broken. Skirting this difficult area, we passed a number of 
small Ijlue lakelets and reached the western border of the Seward 
glacier. A\'e found a gently rising snow-slope leading westAvard 
through a ga}) that could f)e seen in hills a few miles in advance. 
Put little dillicnlty was now experienced, except that the snow 



FuniiAitioii, of Show ( Vr.s/.s-. 143 

had become soft under the .summer's sun, and walking over it 
with heavy loads was wearisome in the extreme. We could see, 
however, that the way ahead was clear, and that encouraged us 
to push on. Tow^ard night we found a camping place on a steep 
ridge of shale and sandstone projecting eastward from a spur of 
Mount Malaspina. This ridge rises about five hundred feet 
above the surrounding glacier, and has steep roof-like slojies. 
The summer sun had melted nearly all the snow from its southern 
face, but the northern slo})e was still heavily loaded. The snow 
on the northern side stood some thirty or forty feet higher than 
the rocky crest of the ridge itself, and between thn rock crest and 
the snow crest there was a little valley which afforded ample 
shelter for our tent and was (piite safe from avalanches. The 
melting of the snow-bank during the warm days supplied us 
with water. 

The formation of crests of snow standing high above the rocky 
ridges on which they rest is a peculiar and interesting feature of 
the mountains of the St. Elias region. A north -and-south section 
through the ridge on which Camp 15 was situated, exhibiting 
the doulile crests, one of rock and the other of snow, is shown at 
a in fio-ure 6. h is a section through a similar ridge with a still 




Figure 6 — Snow Crests on. Ridges and Peaks; from Field Sketches. 

higher snow crest. The remaining figures in the illustration 
are sketches of mountain peaks, as seen from the south, w^hich 
have been increased in height by a heavy accunmlation of snow 
on their northern slopes. These sketches are of peaks among 
the foothills of Mount Malaspina, and show snow pinnacles from 
fifty to more than a hundred feet high. In some instances, 
domes and crests of snow were seen along the w^estern sides of 
the ridges and peaks, Ijut as a rule these snow-tips on the moun- 
tains are confined to their northern slopes. The edges and sum- 
mits of the snow-ridges are sharply defined and clearly cut. 
The southern slope ex})osed above the crest of rock is often con- 
cave, wdiile the nt)rthern slopes are usually convex. 

In climbing steep ridges the doulile crests are frequently of 
great assistance. Safe footing may frequently be found in the 
channels between the crests of rock and snow, by the aid of which 



144 /. C. Rasxcll — Expedition to Mount St. Eli<is. 

very precipitous peaks may be elinil)e(l with ease. \\\ ease the 
aseent l)etween the two crests is not i)ractical)h\ tlie even snow- 
sl()]>e itself affords a sure footinji for one used to iiKiuiUaiii 
cUnibing. 

After estal)hshiiiL!,' Camp lo. Liiidslcy and Stamy I'ctunieil to 
one of the lower cam [)s for additional su|i|tHes. while Ken' and 1 
ex[)loretl a way for farther advance. 

Our camp oecu])ied a connnandinij; situation. From the end 
of the rid<i;e on which it was h)cated tlieic was a s])lendid view of 
glaciers and mountains to the eastward. The illustration ibrndng 
plate IS is froin a photograph taken from that station. Toward 
the north, and only a few miles away, rose the bare, rugged slope 
of Mount j\lalas])ina. In a wild, high-grade gorge on its western 
side, a glacier, all i)innaclcs and crevasses, tum])les down into 
the broad wdiite phun below. On account of its sj)lcndid ice- 
fall this was named the Cascade (/lacier. Beyond the white ])lain, 
stretching eastward for fifteen or twenty miles, there rise the 
foothills of Mount Cook. Farther south, the rugged, angular 
summits of the Hitchcock range are in full view', and toward the 
north stands Mottnt Irving,^' \Yhich rivals even Mount Cook in the 
symmetrical proportions of its snow'-covered slojies. 

The surface of the vast snow-plain near at hand is gaslied l)y 
many ga])ing fissures, l)Ut the distance is so great that these 
minor details disa})])ear in a general view. Looking down over 
the snow, one may see the crevasses as in a diagram. They look 
as if the white surface had been gashed with a shar[) knife, and 
then stretched in such a way as to o])en the cuts. That the snow 
of the neves may be stretched, at least to a limited extent, is 
shown by the character of these fissures. The crevasses are 
widest in tlie center and come to a point at tlieir curving ex- 
tremities. Two crevasses frequently overlap at their ends and 
leave a sliver of ice stretching across diagonally between them. 
It is by means of these diagonal bridges that one is enabled to 
thread his way through the crevasses. 

On I'cturning tit camp in tlic evening, weary with a hard day's 
clind), a nc\-cr-failing source of delight was found in the match- 
less winter landscape to the eastward. The evenings Ibllnwing 
days of uninto'rupted sunshine were especially di'lighthd. The 
l>lue shadows of the western [)(>aks creeping across the shining 
surface were nearly as sharp in outline as the peaks that cast 



* Named in honor of Professor Roland Duer Irving, U. S. geologist. 



Roch Avalanches. 145 

them. When the chill of evening made itself felt, and the drop- 
ping water and the indefinite murmurs from the glacier below 
were stilled, the silence became oppressive. The stillness was 
so profound that it seemed as though the footsteps of the advanc- 
ing shadows should be audible. 

On warm sunny days, however, there are noises enough amid 
the mountains. The snow, partially melted and softened by the 
heat, falls from the cliffs in avalanches that make the mountains 
tremble and, with a roar like thunder, awaken the echoes far 
and near. During our stay at Camp 15 the avalanches were 
sometimes so frequent on the steep mountain faces toward the 
north that the roar of one falling mass of snow and rocks was 
scared}^ hushed liefore it was succeeded by another. 

On the southward-facing cliff's of Mount Augusta, composed of 
schist which disintegrates rapidly, there are frequent rock ava- 
lanches. A rock or a mass of comminuted schist sometimes 
breaks away even in midday, although these avalanches occur 
most frequently when the moisture in the rocks freezes. The 
midday avalanches, I fancy, may be started by the expansion of 
the rocks owing to the sun's heat. A few stones dislodged high 
up on the cliffs fall, and, loosening others in their descent, soon 
set in motion a train of dirt and stones, which flows down the 
steep ravines with a long rumbling roar, at the same time send- 
ing clouds of dust into the air. If the wind is blowing up the 
cliffs, as frequently happens on warm days, the dust is carried 
far above the mountains, and hangs in the air like clouds of 
smoke. 

It has been frequently stated that St. Elias is a volcano, and 
sea captains sailing on the Pacific have seen what they supposd 
to be smoke issuing from its summit. As its southern face is 
composed of the same kind of rocks and is of the same precipi- 
tous nature as the southern slope of Mount Augusta, it ai)pears 
probable that what was suj^posed to be volcanic smoke was in 
reality avalanche dust l)lown upward by ascending air currents. 

The disintegration of the mountain summits all through the 
St. Elias region is so great that one constantly wonders that any- 
thing is left ; yet, except late in the fall, the snow surfaces at the 
bases of even the steepest cliffs are mostly bare of debris. The 
absence of earth and stones on the surfaces of the neve fields is 
mainly due, of course, to the fact that these are regions of accu- 
mulation where the winter's snow exceeds the summer's melting. 



14G 1. ('. Jin.^acll — Kqjcditiou to Mount St. Ellas. 

Thus each year the surface is reuewed aud made fresh and clean, 
and any dehris that may have previously accunuilated is con- 
cealed. 

Thert' is another reason, however, why hut little deliris is 
found at the l)ases of the stee]i i)reci])ices. The snows of winter 
are Imnked liiuh a^uainst these walls, hut when the rocks are 
warmed hy the return of the summer's sun the sn(jw near their 
dark surfaces is melted, and leaves a deep f^ulf hetween the up- 
ward-sloping hanks of snow and the sides of the cliffs. These 
hlack chasms are frequently loO or 200 feet deep, and receive all 
the (It'hris that falls from aho\e. In this way ver\' large quan- 
tities of earth and stones are injected, as it were, into the glacier, 
and only come to light again far down toward the ends of the 
icevStreams, where the sunnner's melting exceeds the winter's 
supply. 

On August 14, Kerr and 1 made an excursion ahead to the 
1 )order of the Agassiz glacier. The snow-slope south of our camp 
led Avestward up a gentle grade to a gap in the hills hetween two 
hold, snow-covered donu's. The ga]) tln'ough which tlie snow 
extended, uniting with a hroad snow-field sloping westward, was 
only a few hundred feet wide, and formed a typical mountain 
pass, designated on our map as Dome p(ts-'<. Its elevation is 
4,300 feet. When near the summit ol" the pass a few stei)s car- 
ried us j)ast the divide of snow, and revealed to our eager eyes 
the wonderland heyond. St. Elias rose majestically ])efore us, 
unobstructed l)y intervening hills, and l)are ol" clouds from base 
to summit. We were greatly encouraged ])y the prospect ahead, 
as there W(,;re evidently no olwtacles hetween us and the actual 
base of the mountain. A ])h»)t()graph of the magnificent peak 
was taken, from which the illustration forming plate 19 has been 
drawn. To tlie I'ight of the main mountain mass, as shown in 
the illustration, rises Mount A^ewton,-''^ one of {\\c many separate 
mountain ])eaks crowning the crest of the St. l*]lias range. Our 
way le<l down the snow-slop(! in the foreground to the border of 
the Agassiz glacier, which comes in \iew l)etween tlie foot-hill.-+ 
in the middle distanc(^ and the sculptured basi^ on which the 
ci'owning pyramid of St. l*>lias stands. After reaching the Agassiz 
glacier we turned to the right, and made our way to the amj^hi- 

* Named for Henry Newton, formerly of the School of Mines of Co- 
lumbia college and author of a report on the geology of the Black hills 
of Dakota. 




ml 



Across Dome Pass. 147 

theatre lying between Mount St. Elias and Mount Newton. On 
the day we discovered Dome pass, we pressed on down the west- 
ern snow-slope and reached the side of the Agassiz glacier, 
which we found greatly crevassed ; selecting a camping place on 
a rocky spur, we returned to Camp 15, and two days later estah- 
lished camp at the place chosen. 

Camp 16 was similar in many ways to Camp 14. It had al)out 
the same altitude ; it was at the western end of a rugged moun- 
tain spur, and on the immediate l)order of a large southward- 
flowing glacier. On the lower portions of the cliti's, near at 
hand, there were velvety patches of brilliant Alpine flowers 
mingled with thick Ijunches of wiry grass and clumjjs of delicate 
ferns. ^lost conspicuous of all the showy plants, so bright and 
lovely in the vast wilderness of snow, were the purple lupines. 
Already the flowers on the lower portions of their sj^ikes had 
matured, and pods covered with a thick coating of wooly hairs 
were beginning to be conspicuous. There are no bees and but- 
terflies in these isolated gardens, but brown flies with long- 
pointed wings were abundant. A gray bird, a little larger than 
a sparrow, was seen flitting in and out of crevasses near the 
border of the ice, apparently in quest of insects. Once, while 
stretched at full length on the flowery carpet enjoying the warm 
sunlight, a humming bird flashed past me. Occasionally the 
hoarse cries of ravens were heard among the cliffs, but they 
seldom ventured near enough to be seen. These few suggestions 
were all there was to remind us of the summer fields and shady 
forests in f;ir-away lands. 

Up the Agassiz Glacier. 

From Camp 16 Kerr and I made an excursion across the 
Agassiz glacier, while Stamy and Lindsley returned t(> a lower 
camp for additional supplies. We found the glacier greatly 
crevassed and the way across more difficult than on any of the 
ice-fields we had jjreviously traversed ; but by dint of persever- 
ance, and after many changes in our course, we succeeded at last 
in reaching the western bank, and saAV that by climl)ing a preci- 
pice, bordering an ice-cascade we could gain a plateau above? 
which we knew from previous observations to be comparatively 
little broken. 'We returned to camp, and on August 18 began 
the ascent of the glacier in earnest. We were favored in the task 
bv lirilliant weather. 



148 1. C. RumU—ExpcdUion fo Moimf St. FAUtf^. 

After reachino; tlie western hank of the frlacier, we made our 
way to the hase of tlie ))re('ipiee U]) whicli Ave had jjreviously 
wishe(l to cliiiil). In order to reaeli it. however, we had to throw 
our [laeks across a crevasse over wliicli tliere was no l)ridge, and 
followed them hy jumping-. Tlie side ol' the crevasse from which 
we sprauir was higher tlian its opi)osite Hp. and left us veiy un- 
certain as to how we were to return ; l)ut that was a nuitter for 
the future ; our aim at the time was to ascend the glacier, and 
tlic i-cturn was of no immediate concern. 

lleaching- the base of the cliff at the side of the glacier, we 
ascended it without great dithculty. and came out upon theliroad 
])lateau of snow al)ove. Thinking that tlie way onward would 
be easier along the steej:) snow-slo})e Ijordering the glacier, we 
made an effort to ascend in that direction, and spent two or 
tlii'ce ])recious hours in trying to lind a pi'acticablc route. 
Although the crevasses were fewer than on the glacier proper, 
yet they were of larger size and had l)ut few l)ridges. At last 
we came to a wide gulf on the opposite side of which there was 
a perpendicular wall of snow a hundred feet high, and all further 
advance in that direction was stojjped. Although ol)liged to 
turn back, our elevated })osition commanded a good view of the 
glacier below and enabled us to choose a way through the maze 
of crevasses crossing it. Descending, we ])lod(led wearily on in 
an irregular zigzag course; but the crevasses became broader 
and deeper as we advanced, and at length we found ourselves 
traversing flat talde-likc blocks of snow, 1»ounde(l on all sides l)y 
crevasses so deep that tlu'ir bottoms Avere lost to view. We made 
our Avay from one suoav -table to another by jum])ing the crcA'asses 
Avhei'c they Avere narrowest, or by ffail suoav -bridges S])anning 
the profound gulfs. Night came on Avhile Ave Avere yet in this 
Avild, broken region, and no choice Avas left us but to ])itcli our 
tent in the snow and wait until morning. The night Avas clear 
and cold, and a lirm crust formed on the snow before morning. 
Although the tem])erature Avas uncomfortal)le, Ave Avere cheered 
by the prospects of a (ii'in snow surface on the morrow. 

We continued our mai'cb at sunrise and found the walking 
easy; but the smi soon came out with uiuisual brilliancy and 
softened the snow so much that even the slowest movements 
Averc fatiguing. \\v endeavored to force our way U]» the center 
of the glacier thnuigh the crevasses and pimiaclcs of a second 
ice-fall ; but aftei- several hours of exhausting experience we were 



Scalmc^ Roj^e Cliff. 149 

obliged to change our plan, and endeavored to reach a mountain 
spur projecting from the western border of the glacier. The sun- 
light reflected from the snow was extremely brilliant, and the 
glare from every surface about us was painful to our eyes, already 
weakened by many days' travel over the white snow. Each 
member of the party was provided with colored glasses, l)ut in 
traversing snow-bridges and jumping crevasses these had to he 
dispensed with. The result was that all of us were suffering 
more or less from snow-];>lindness. 

About noon we reached the l)ase of the mountain spur toward 
which our course was bent. It projects into the western liorder 
of Agassiz glacier. It is the extension of this cliff underneath the 
glacier that caused the ice-fall which blocked our way. To go 
round the end of the cliff with our packs was impractical^le, but 
there seemed a way up the foce of the cliff itself, which one could 
scale l:)y taking advantage of the joints in the rocks. I ascended 
the snow-slope to the V)ase of the precipice, but found the way 
upward more difficult than anticipated ; and, as the light was 
very painful to my eyes when not protected by colored glasses, I 
decided to postpone making the climb until I was in better con- 
dition, and in the meantime to see if some other route could not 
be found. We decided to camp on a small patch of debris near 
the base of the cliff, and there left our loads. Kerr and Linds- 
ley, taking a rope and alpenstocks, went around the end of the 
rocky spur and worked their way upward with great difficulty 
to the top of the cliff immediately above where I had essayed to 
climb it. A roi)e was made fast at the top, and our way onward 
was secured. This place was afterward called Rope cliff. The 
remainder of the afternoon I rested in the tent, with my eyes 
bound U}) with tea-leaves, and when evening came found the 
l)ain in my head much relieved. 

Our tent that night was so near the brink of a crevasse that in 
order to stay the tent one end of the ridge-rope was made fast to 
a large stone, which was lowered into the gulf to serve as a stake. 
Al:»ove us rose a precipice nearly a thousand feet high, from which 
stones were constantly falling ; but a deep black gulf intervened 
between the position we had chosen and the base of the cliffs, 
and into this the stones Avere precipitated. Not one of the fall- 
ing fragments reached the edge of the snow slope on which we 
were camped, but many times during the night we heard the 
whiz and hum of the roi-ks as they shot doAvn fi-oiii th(^ cliffs. 

21— Nat. Geog. Mao., vol. Ill, 18!)!. 



150 /. C. Russrll—KrpnJlfin,, to Moiinf Sf. Kliiiii. 

The noise made Ity each frao;incnt in its passai^e thruugli tlie air 
increased rai)i(lly in pitcli, thus indicating that they were ap- 
proachingus; ])ut they always fell short of our cam] >. 'riiclioni- 
hardnient from above was most active just after the shadows fell 
on the cliffs, showing that the stones were loosened by the freez- 
ing of the water in the interstices of the rock. 

The next day, August 20, Stamy and liindsley went Itack to 
Camp 1() for more rations, while Kerr and 1 remained at Camp 
l.S nursing our eyes and resting. Tlie day i)assed without any- 
thing worthy of note, exce[)t tlie almost constant thunder of 
avalanches on tlie inouiitains. About sunset a dense fog spread 
over the wintry landscape and threatened trt delay the return of 
the men. Wdien the sun went down, however, the temperature 
fell several degrees, tlu; mist vanished, and a few stars came out 
clear and briglit. Just as we were about to despair of seeing the 
men that night we heard a distant shout announcing their re- 
turn. ^^'e liad a cup of liot coffee for them Avlicn tliey reached 
the tent, whicli they drank with eagerness; but they were too 
tired to partake of food. Rolling themselves in their blankets, 
they were asleep in a few minutes. 

Camp om tiik Nkwton CU.acier. 

On August 21 we clind)ed the clil]' above Cam]) IS l)y means 
of the roj^e already i)laced there, and found the snow aliove 
greatly crevassed. We traveled u})ward along the steep slope 
Ijordering the glacier, Init soon came to a deej) crevasse which 
forl)ade further i)rogress in that direction. Returning to a lower 
level, we undertook to smooth olf an extremely narrow snow- 
bridge so as to make it wide enough to cross, but found tlie 
undertaking so hazardous that we aliandoned it. By tliis time 
it was midday, and we ])rc])av('d a cu{) of hot coffee before renew- 
ing our attack on the clill's. Alter luncheon and a short rest, 
feeling very much refreshed, we began to cut a series of steps in 
a])luffof snow about fifty feet higli, and made rapid progress 
in the undertaking. After an hour's bard work one of us reached 
the top and, planting an alpenstock deep in the snow, lowered 
a rope to those below. The packs were drawn up one at a time 
and we were soon ready to advance again. 

We found ourselves in a vast am])hitheatre bounded on all 
sides excepting that from which we had come with rugged, snow- 



Irimd Cloud Baihner.s. 151 

covered precipices. The plain was crossed )>y liiii;o crevasses, 
some of which were fully a mile in length ; but by traveling 
around their ends or crossing snow-bridges wc slowly worked 
our way onward toward St. Elias. Threading our way through 
the labyrinth of yawning gulfs, we at last, after the sun had gone 
down l:)ehind the great pyramid toward the west, found a con- 
venient place on the snow, near a blue pond of water, on which 
to pass the night. Everything was snow-covered in the vast 
landscape except the most precii)itous cliffs, and these were 
dangerous to approach, owing to the avalanches that freipiently 
fell from them. The weather continued fine. The night Avas 
clear and the stars were unusually brilliant. Everything seemed 
favorable for pushing on. The way ahead presented such even 
snow-slopes and seemed so free from crevasses that we decided 
to leave Qur tent and blankets in the morning and, taking with 
us as little as possible of impedimenta, endeavor to reach the 
summit of St. Elias. 

HiGPiEST Point reached. 

Rising at three o'clock on the morning of August 22, we started 
for the summit of St. Elias, taking with us only our water-proof 
coats, some food, and the necessary instruments. The higher 
mountain summits were no longer clearly defined, but in the 
early light it was impossible to tell whether or not the day was 
to be fair. From the highest and sharpest peaks, cloud l)anners 
were streaming off towards the southeast, showing that the higher 
air currents were in rapid movement. Vapor banks in the east 
Avere flushed with long streamers of light as the sun rose, l)ut 
soon faded to a dull ashen gray, while the cloud banners Ijetween 
us and the sun became brilliant like the halo seen around the 
moon Avhen the sky is covered with fleecy clouds. This was the 
first time in my experience that I had seen colored banners 
waving from the mountain tops. 

AVe found the snow-surface hard, and made rapid headway 
up the glacier. Our only difliculty was the uncertainty of the 
early light, which rendered it impossible to tell the slope of the 
uneven snoAv-surfaces. The light Avas so evenly diffused that 
there were no shadoAvs. The rare beauty of that silent, wintry 
landscape, so delicate in its pearly half tones and so softly 
lighted, Avas unreal and fairv-like. The Avinds Avere still ; but 



ir)2 /. C. liHssrll — /'Irpcdidoit fo Monnl St. I'J/ids. 

i^iniw^o forel )0(ling.s of coming changes filled the air. Long, 
waving threads of vapor were woven in lace-work across the sky ; 
the white-rohed mountains were ])artially coiicealed hy cloud- 
masses drifting like si)irits along their mighty Ijattlements ; and 
far, far ahove, from the toi)most pinnacles, irised banners were 
signaling the coming of a storm. 

We made rapid i)rogress, 1)ut early in the day came to the 
base of a heavy cloud bank wliich enslirouded all the upper part 
of St. Elias. Then snow began to fall, and it Avas evident that 
to proceed farther would be rash and Avithout promise of success. 
After twenty days of fatigue and hardship) since leaving Blossom 
island, with our goal almost reached, we were obliged to turn 
back. Hoping to be able to renew tlie attempt after the storm 
had passed, Mr. Kerr left his instruments on the snow Ijctween 
tAvo huge crevasses and avc returned to our tent, where we passed 
the remainder of the day and the night following. The snow 
continued to fall throughout the day, and the storm increased 
in force as night came on. When we awoke in the morning the 
tempest was still raging. We were in the midst of the storm- 
cloud ; the dense vapor and the fine drifting snoAV-crystals swept 
along by the wind obscured everything from view; the white 
snow surface could not be distinguished from the vapor-fillcd 
air ; there was no earth and no sky ; we seemed to be suspended 
in a white, translucent medium which surrounded us like a 
shroud. The snow Avas already more than three feet deep about 
our tent, and to remain longer Avith the short supply of provis- 
ions on hand Avas exceedingly hazardous, as there seemed no 
limit to the duration of the storm. A can of rations had l)een 
left at Rope cliti", and Ave decided to return to that place if i)0ssi- 
ble. Ivcsuming our packs, avc rojjcd ourselves together and began 
to descend through the blinding mist and snoAV which rendered 
the atmosphere so dense that a man could not be distinguished 
at a distance of a hundred feet. AVith only an occasional glimpse 
of the AA'hite cliH' around to guide us, avc Avorked our Avay doAvn- 
Avard over snow-bridges and between the crevasses. Our ascent 
through this dangerous region had been sIoav and difficult, but 
our descent Avas still more tedious. All day long \vc continued 
to creej) slowly along througli the blinding storm, and as night 
ai>proached believe<l ovu\selvcs near the steps cut in a snow-cliff 
during the ascent, but darkness came before we reached them. 
Shoveling the suoav aAvav as best Ave could Avith our hands and 



Second Attempt to >>cale St. ElUt^. 153 

basins, we cleared a place down to the old snow large enough 
for our tent and went into canip. 

In the morning, August 24, the storm had spent its force and 
left the mountains with an immaculate covering, but still par- 
tially veiled l)y shreds of storm-clouds. We found ourselves on 
one of the many tal)les of snow, l^ounded on all sides by crevasses 
of great depth, but not far from the snow-cliff where we had cut 
steps. The steps were obliterated by the new snow, but l)y means 
of a rope and alpenstocks we made the descent without much 
difficulty. The last man to go down, not having the help of 
the rope, used two alpenstocks, and descended by first planting 
one firmly in the snow and lowering himself as far as he could, 
still retaining a firm hold, and then planting the other in the 
snow at a lower level and removing the higher one. By slowly 
and carefully repeating this operation he descended the cliff safely 
and rejoined his companions. Passing on beneath the cliffs, 
dangerous on account of avalanches, we reached in safety the 
precipice where we had left our rope. A heavy avalanche had 
swept down from the heights alcove during our absence and sent 
its spray over the precipice we had to descend. The cliff of 
ice towering above the place where our rope was fastened had 
become greatly melted and honey-combed, and threatened every 
moment to crash down and destroy any one who chanced to be 
beneath. To stand aljove the precipice in the shadow of the 
treacherous snow-cliffs while the men were descending the rope 
was exceedingly trying to one's nerves ; but the avalanches did 
not come, and the previous camping place below Rope cliff was 
reached with safety. 

The following day, August 25, after some consultation, it was 
decided to once more attempt to reach the top of Mount St. 
EMas. Lindsley and Stamy, who had shared without complaint 
our privations in the snow, volunteered to descend to a lower 
camp for additional rations, while Kerr and myself returned to 
the higher camp in the hope that we might be able to ascend 
the peak before the men returned, and, if not, to have sufficient 
rations when they did rejoin us to continue the attack. The 
men departed on their difficult errand, while Kerr and I, with 
blankets, tents, oil-stoves, and what rations remained, once more 
scaled the cliff where we had placed a rope, and returned on the 
trail made the day previously. Al)out noon we reached the ex- 
cavation in the snow where we had bivouacked in the storm, 



154 1. C Ila.'iscU — Kcpcdiliou lo MukiiI tSI. I'Jlla,s. 

and there prepared a lunch. It was then discovered that we had 
l)een mistaken as to the quantity of oil in our cans ; we found 
scarcely enoULili to cook a sint;le meal. To attempt to remain 
several days in the snow witli this small sujiply of fuel seemed 
hazardous, and Mr. Kerr volunteered to descend and overtake the 
men at the lower camp, procure some oil. and return the follow- 
ing day. A\'e then separated, Mr. Kerr starting down the moun- 
tain, leaving me with a douhle load, weighing hetween sixty and 
seventy ])ounds, tt) carry through the deep snow to the high 
camp previously occupied. 

AlONK I.\ THK MKUIICST C'aMP. 

Trudging wearily on, I reached the liigli cam}) at sunset, and 
pitched my tent in the exciivation previously occupied. An 
alpenstock was used for one tent-pole, and snow saturated with 
water, piled up in a column, for the other; the snow froze in a 
few minutes, and held the tent securely. The ends of the ridge- 
rope were then stam])ed into the snow, and water was i)oured 
over them; the edges of the tent were treated in a similar man- 
ner, and my shelter was ready for occupati(^n. After cooking 
some supper over the oil-stove, I rolled myself in a hlanket and 
slept the sleep of the wea'ry. I was awakened in the morning 
l)y snow drifting into my tent, and on looking out discovered 
that I was again caught in a hlinding storm or mist of snow. 
The storm raged all day and all night, and continued without 
interruption until the evening of the second day. The coal oil 
becoming exhausted, a can was filled with bacon grease, in Avhich 
a cotton rag was placed for a wick ; and over this " witch lamp " 
I did my cooking during the remainder of my stay. The snow, 
falling steadily, soon buried my tent, already surrounded on 
three sides l)y an icy wall higher than my head, and it was only 
by almost constant exertion that it ^vas ke])t from being crushed 
in. \V\i\\ a pint basin for a shovel I ch'ared the tent as best I 
could, and several times during the day re-excavated the hole 
leading down to the ]iond, which had long since disa])])eared 
beneath the level plain of white. The excavation of a tunnel in 
the snow was also begun in the expectation that the tent would 
])ecome uninbabitalile. The following night it became imi)Ossi- 
ble to keep the tent clear in s})ite of energetic etlbrts, and early 
in the morning it was crushed in 1)V a great weight of snow, 



Alone ill the Snow. 155 

leaving me no alternative but to finish my snow-house and 
move in. A tunnel some four or five feet in length was excavated 
in the snow, and a chamber aljout six feet long by four feet wide 
and three feet high was made at right angles to the tunnel. In 
this chamber I placed my blankets and other belongings, and, 
hanging a ruljber coat on an alpenstock at the entrance, found 
myself well sheltered from the tempest. There I i)assed the 
day and the night following. At night the darkness and silence 
in my narrow tomlj-like cell was oppressive; not a sound broke 
the stillness except the distant, muffled roar of an occasional 
avalanche. I slept soundly, however, and in the morning was 
awakened l)y the croaking of a raven on the snow immediately 
above my head. The grotto was filled with a soft bkie light, 
but a pink radiance at the entrance told that the day had dawned 
bright and clear. 

What a glorious sight awaited me ! The heavens were with- 
out a cloud, and the sun shone with dazzling splendor on the 
white peaks around. The broad unbroken snow-plain seemed - 
to burn with light reflected from millions of shining crystals. 
The great mountain peaks were draped from base to summit in 
the purest white, as yet unscarred by avalanches. On the steep 
cliffs the snow hung in folds like drapery, tier above tier, while 
the angular peaks above stood out like crystals against the sky. 
St. Elias was one vast pyramid of alabaster. The winds were 
still; not a sound broke the solitude; not an object moved. 
Even the raven had gone, leaving me alone with the mountains. 

As the sun rose higher and higher and made its warmth felt, 
the snow was loosened on the steep slopes and here and there 
broke away. Gathering force as it fell, it rushed down in ava- 
lanches that made the mountains tremble and awakened thun- 
derous echoes. From a small beginning high up on the steep 
slopes, the new snow would slip downward, silently at first, and 
cascade over precipices hundreds of feet high, looking like a fall 
of foaming water ; then came the roar, increasing in volume as 
the flowing snow involved new fields in its path of destruction, 
until the great mass became irresistible and ploughed its way 
downward through clouds of snow-spray, which hung in the air 
long after the snow had ceased to move and the roar of the ava- 
lanche had ceased. All day long, until the shadow of evening 
fell (»n the steep slopes, this mountain thunder continued. The 
echoes of one avahiuche scarcely died away licfore tliey were 



156 /. C. n>is.<ieIJ— Expedition fo Mount St. FAim. 

awakened by anotlier roav. To witness such a scene under the 
most favorable conditions was worth all the privations and 
anxiety it cost. 

l^esides the streams of new snow, there were occasional ava- 
lanches of a different character, caused by the breaking away of 
portions of the cliffs of old snow, accumulated, perhaps, during 
several winters. These start from the summits of precipices, 
and are caused l)y the slow doAvnward creep of the snow-fields 
above. The snow-cliffs are always crevassed and liroken in , 
much the same manner as are the ends of glaciers which enter 
the sea, and occasionally large masses, containing thousands of 
cubic yards, break away and are precipitated down the slopes 
with a suddenness that is always startling. Usually the first 
announcement of these avalanches is a report like that of a can- 
non, followed by a rumbling roar as the descending mass ploughs 
its Avay along. The avalanches formed by old snow are quite 
different from those caused by the descent of the new surface 
snow, but are frequently accompanied by surface streams in case 
there has been a recent storm. The paths ploughed out by the 
avalanches are frequently sheathed with glassy ice, formed by the 
freezing of water produced l)y the melting of snow on account of 
the heat produced by the fri(;tion of the moving mass. A third 
variety of avalanches, due to falling stones, has already been 
noticed. 

The floor of my snow-cliainbcr was the surface of the old snow 
on which we had pitched our tents at the time we first reached 
that cami)ing place. On this hard surface, and forming the Avails 
of the cell, there Avcre thirty inches of clear AA'bite snoAV, the 
U])per limit of Avbicb Avas marked l)y a l»lu(' layer of ice about a 
(piarter of an inch thick. This indicated tbe tbickness of snoAV 
that fell during the first storm. Its surface had l)een melted and 
softened during the days of sunshine that followeil its fall, and 
had frozen into clear ice. Above the blue band Avbich encircled 
tlu,' upper })ortion of ni}'' chamber Avas the soft, i)ure Avhite snoAV 
of the second storm. The stratification of snoAV AAdiich I had 
seen fall rendered it evident that my interpretation of the strat- 
ification observed in the sides of crevasses Avas correct. The 
snoAV Avhen it fell Avas soft and Avbitc. and composed of A'ery 
fine crystals; but under the inlluence of the air and sunshine it 
changed its texture and Ix'came icy and granular, and then re- 
semlile(l the ncA'e snoAV so eonnnon in hi<ih mountains. 



A second JRetreat. 157 

The day following the storm was bright and beautiful; the 
sunlight was warm and pleasant, but the temperature in the 
shadows was always below freezing. The surface of the snow 
did not melt sufficiently during the day to freeze and form a 
crust during the night. It thus became more and more appar- 
ent that the season was too far advanced to allow the snow to 
harden sufficiently for us to be able to climl) the mountain. The 
snow settled somewhat and changed its character, but even at 
midday the crystals on the surface glittered as brilliantly in the 
sunlight as they did in the early morning. Although the snow 
did not melt, its surface was lowered slightly l)y evai)oration. 
The tracks of the raven, at first sunken a quarter of an inch in 
the soft surface, after the first day of sunshine stood slightly in 
relief, but were still clearly defined. 

On the sixth day after separating from my companions, judg- 
ing that they must have returned at least to the camping place 
where we had separated, I packed my blankets and what food 
remained, abandoned the tent and oil-stove, and started to de- 
scend the mountain. The snow had settled somewhat, but was 
still soft and yielding and over six feet deep. Tramping wearily 
on through the chafi-like substance, I slowly worked my way 
downward, and again threaded the maze of crevasses, now par- 
tially concealed by the layer of new snow, with which we had 
struggled several times before. Midway to the next camping 
l)lace I met my companions coming up to search for me. Instead 
of meeting three men, as I expected, I saw five tramping along 
in single file through the deep snow. The sight of human beings 
in that vast solitude was so strange that I watched them for 
some time before shouting. Glad as I was- to meet my com- 
panions once more, I could aiot help noticing their rough and 
picturesque appearance. Each man wore colored glasses and 
carried a long alpenstock, and two or three had packs strapped 
on their backs. Several weeks of hard tramping over moraines 
and snow-fields had made many rents in their clothes, which 
had Iseen mended with cloth of any color that chanced to be 
available. Not a few rags were visible fluttering in the wind. 
To a stranger they would have appeared like a dangerous l)and 
of brigands. 

The reason for the presence of five men instead of three was 
this: Lindsley and Stamy, when they left us at lvo))e cliff to 

22— Nat. Geoo. Mag., vol. Ill, IS'.tl. 



158 J. ('. Hii.ssd/ — Kijx'dllioii to Mount St. Elica^. 

ivturn for additional rations, were obliu;ed to go back to Cam]) 12 
in order to uct a trnt and an oil-stt)ve. On roachinji- that plaro 
the temptation to rctnrn to lilossoni island was so great tluit 
Lindsk'y eould not resist it and went ])aek to the haso-canii), 
where he rejiorted tliat Kerr and 1 Avere storni-l)onnd in the 
mountains and in need of assistance. Tliree men, Partriduc 
Doney, and White, started at once, and found Stamy, who had 
waited for their arrival at Camj) 12. A day was thus lost, which 
increased Mr. Kerr's hardship) antl might liave proved disastrous. 
The party then returned to Rope clitl" and joined Kerr on the 
evening of August 20. On tins occasion, as on several others, I 
found myself indel)te(l to Stamy for willing assistance when 
others hesitated. 

During my imi)risonnient at the highest eami), Mr. Kerr was 
detained under similar circumstances at the camp l)elow Rope 
cliff. On endeavoring to rejoin me with the sup})ly of coal oil, 
so very valuable undi-r the circumstances, he was caught in the 
storm and was unable to reach the rendezvous ap])ointed. He 
reached Rope cliff late in the afternoon oi" the first day of the 
storm, clind)ed the ]»reci])ice, aiul found Ids way through the 
giithei'ing darkness, along the nearly obliterated trail beneath 
the avalanche cliffs, and up the steps cut in the snow-cliff, to the 
site of our bivouac camp. Finding nothing there, and being 
unal)le to })r()ceed farther through the blinding storm, lie a1)an- 
doned the attemi)t and returned to the camp below Rope cliff. 
In descending the ro})e, he found that its lower end had become 
fast in the snow. The taut line, sheathed with ice, was an un- 
certain help in the darkness. Midway in the descent his hands 
slipped and he slid to the bottom ; but the cushion of new snow 
l>roke the fall and prevented serious injury. Alone, without 
fire, without blankets, having only a canvas cover and a rubbei- 
cloth for shelter, and with but little food, he passe(l three anxious 
days and nights before the arrival of the camp liands. 

TuK RirriKX. 

Deciding that the ascent of Mount St. I^lias could not be ac- 
Cimiplished through the new snow, which refused to harden, it 
was dei'ided to abandon the attem])t and return to r>lossom 
island. ( )ui" reti'cat was none too soon. Stoi-m succeeded storm 
thfoUglidUt Scptciiibei'. K:ic\\ time the clouds liftccl, flic mantle 



Sn()ir-/i/iii(Jiirs.s. 159 

of iiGAV snow was seen to have descended lower and lower. Our 
last view showed the wintry covering nearly down to timber- 
line. 

On the night of August 31 we slept at the camp l)eneath Roi)e 
cliff, but had a most uncomfortable night. Six men sleei)ing in 
a tent measuring seven l)y seven feet, with Init little protection 
from the ice beneath, certainly does not seem inviting to one sur- 
rounded l)y the comforts of civilization. A large part of the 
night was occupied by Doney in preparing breakfast over our 
oil-stove. An earl 3^ start was welcome to all ; we were disap- 
pointed at not being able to reach the top of St. Elias, and were 
anxious to return to more comfortable quarters. Kerr concluded 
to return at once to Blossom island to recujoerate, while I made 
an excursion up the Seward glacier, with the hope of gaining the 
upper ice-fall and seeing the amphitheatre beyond. 

We left Rope cliff about six in the morning, and found the 
snow hard and traveling easy for several hours. After descend- 
ing the lower ice-fall, however, the snow became soft, and a 
change in the atmosphere indicated the approach of another 
storm. Kerr and Doney pressed on and were soon lost to sight, 
while the rest of the part}^ were delayed, owing to Partridge hav- 
ing become snow-blind and almost helpless. As the crevasses 
were exceedingly numerous and the snow-ljridges soft and un- 
certain, the task of conducting a l)lin(l man to a place of safety 
was by no means light. Partridge bore up bravely under his 
afffiction, however, and did not hesitate in crawling across the 
treacherous snow-bridges with a rope fastened about his body 
and a man before and behind to assist his movements. Late in 
the day we reached our camping place at the eastern border of 
the Agassiz glacier, while Kerr and Doney crossed Dome pass 
and spent the night in a tent that had been left standing at the 
first camping east of the pass. We pitched a tent on our old 
camping place at Camp 16, and had the luxury of a rocky bed 
to sleep on that night. As Partridge's blindness still continued, 
Wliite was sent ahead to tell Kerr and Doney to wait for us in 
the morning, so that Partridge could accompany them to Blossom 
island. Rain continued all that night and all the next day. As 
Partridge's eyes were still unserviceable in the morning, I con- 
cluded to wait a day before allowing him to start for Blossom 
island. 

ToAvard evening on Septeml)er 21 Ave moved our camp across 



160 I. ('. lUi!<S(U — Kqxdilioii. Id Mount *S7. Klias. 

Dome pass, and pitclied our tent on tlic hiuli ri(l«;i! beside the 
one occupied by Kerr and Doney. In the niorninii. althoujili 
the storm still continurtl, diii' |i;n1y (li\i(lcd, Kerr, Doney, and 
Partridge startini;- early tor lilossom ishmd, while Stamy, White, 
and myself, after followinii their tracks for a few miles, turned to 
the left and worked our way northeastward among the crevasses 
of the Seward glacier. Toward evening we reached the north- 
western si)ur of Mount Owen, but found the clitis rising aljru])tl_y 
from the glacier and too favorable for avalanches to admit of our 
camping near tluan. Again we were forced to go into camp on 
the open glacier, and were less Comfortable than previously on 
similar occasions, owing to the fact that we had been exposed to 
the rains for three successive days and our blankets and clothes 
were wet. Rain (!ontinued all night and all the next day, and 
on the following night changed to snow. 

On the morning of Beptember 4 we awoke tt) tind the skies 
clear, but the mountains all about us were white with snow. 
Before the sun rose. White and I started for the top of the high 
ridge above us, determined to have at least a distant view of 
the amphitheatre which we wished to explore. The snow al)out 
our cam]) was only six or eight inches deep, but as we ascended 
the mountain it grew more and more troublesome, and at a 
height of a thousand feet above camp was thirty inches deej). 
On gaining the summit of the ridge a magnificent view was 
obtained of the upper jjortion of the Seward glacier and of Mount 
Irving and Mount Logan, and many bold, tapering mountains 
farther northeastward. The whole landscape was snow-covered, 
and as the sun rose clear in the east became of the most dazzling 
brilliancy. An icy wind swe])t down from the northeast and 
rendered it exceedingly difficult to take photograplis or to make 
measurements. On endeavoring to use my prismatic ccnnpass, 
I found that, having l)een soaked with moisture during the pre- 
vious days of storm, it froze solid and refused to move, on being 
exposed to the air. Making what observations I could, ^ve 
started l)ack to camp with the intention of abandoning all further 
attemi)ts to work in the high mountains. 

On the stee]) slope now exposed to the full sunshine several 
avalanches had gone down, and there was great danger of others. 
Selecting a point where an avalanche had already swei)t away 
the new snow, we woi'ked our way downward in a zigzag course 
and reached the l)ottom safelv. although an avalanche starting 



Rciurii to Hld.^soni hliiiid. 161 

near at hand swe})! ])y within a few yards. When nearl}^ at the 
bottom my attention was attracted by a noise above, and on 
looking up 1 saw two rocks bounding down the slope and coming 
straight for me. To dodge them on the steep slippery slope was 
difficult and dangerous. Allowing one to pass over my right 
shoulder, I instantly moved in that direction and allowed the 
other to pass over my left shoulder. They shot by me like frag- 
ments of shells, Init did no injury. Reaching camp, we found 
that Stamy had dried our blankets and clothes. 

Resuming our packs, we slowly threaded our way downward 
to Camp 14, at the western end of the Pinnacle pass cliffs. We 
there found cans of rations left several days before and, pitching 
our tent, passed the night. We knew by the signs found there 
that Kerr and his companions, after taking lunch, had renewed 
their journey toward Blossom island. Our camp was just at the 
lower limit of the new snow. To the northward all was of the 
purest white, l)ut southward, down the glacier, the snow-fields 
were yellow and much discolored. Many changes had taken 
place in the Seward glacier since we first saw it ; the pinnacles, 
snow-tables, and crevasses in the rapids were less striking than 
formerly, and had evidently suffered greatly from the summer's 
heat. Al)out the bases of the cliffs there were dark, irregular 
patches of debris, where a month previously all was white. As 
nearly as could be judged, the surface of the glacier had been 
lowered by melting and settling during our absence about fifty 
feet. 

The following morning, September 5, we started for Blossom 
island, the weather still continuing thick and stormy. On cross- 
ing Pinnacle pass we found over a foot of new snow which had 
fallen since our companions passed that way. Toward night- 
fall the lower limit of snow on the Marvine glacier was reached, 
and at night we camped on the first moraines which appeared 
below the neve. The day following, September 6, we reached 
Blossom island about noon, and found that Kerr and his party 
had arrived there safely, and that Partridge had recovered from 
his snow-blindness. 

Our stay aljove the snow-line had lasted thirty-five days, and 
we were extremely glad to see the light of a camp-fire and have 
the trees and flowers a])out us once more. The vegetation in- 
dicated that the season was already far advanced. Most of 
the flowers had faded, and autumn tints gave brilliancy to the 



1()'2 /. ('. /.V/.s.sr// — Kr/,<inii(,,i li> Mniiul SI. FJ'nix. 

lower mountain slojx's ; salmon l)crries and huckicborrios were 
ill })rofusi()n. and lurnislicd an txcccdinolv agreeal)l(' ('lianj2;e in 
our diet. After a bath in one ol'llic small lakelets on the island 
and u good night's rest on a luxui'iant ht'd of spruee houghs, we 
felt fully restored and ix'ady Ihr another campaign. 

As Kerr was anxious to get hack to Port Mulgravc. it was ar- 
ranged that Lindsley and Partridge should go with him, and that 
the rest of the men should remain. Kerr took his (lci)artuiv on 
the morning of .Sei)teml)er 7. and on the following day Christie, 
Doney, and myself crossed the Marvine glacier to the southern 
end of the Hitchcock range, and the t'ollowing day made an ex- 
cursion out Uj)on the ^^alaspina glacier. The day of our excur- 
sion was hriglit and beautiful, and the mountains to the north- 
ward revealed their full magniticence. The level plateau of ice 
formed a horizontal plain, from which the mountain rose j^re- 
cii)itously and ai)])eared grander and more majestic than from 
any other point of view. 8t. Elias rose clear and sharp, witliout 
a cloud to ol)scure its dizzy height, and aj)peared to be one sheer 
preci})ice. It is doubtful if a more impressive mountain face 
exists anywhere else in the world. After learning all we could 
concerning the Malaspina glacier we returned to our cami> at the 
end of the Hitchcock range, and the following day tramped across 
the extrenu'ly rough morainc-covere(l surface back to l)lossoin 
island. 

The folloAving morning, September 12, we started on our I'eturn 
tri}) to Yakutat I)ay. Two small tents and many articles for 
which we had no further use were abandoned, so as to make our 
packs light as possible. We crossed the Hayden glacier, and at 
night camped at the foot of Floral pass. After making two in- 
termediate! camjis, traveling each day in the rain, we reached the 
shore of Yakutat bay on Sei)tember 15. 

Doney and I halted at Dalton's cabin for the ])urpose of see- 
ing wliat we could of the o])enings there made for coal, while 
the rest of the ])arty pressed on to our old camping ])laee on the 
shore. There they found Kerr and his i)arty still eiicam])eil, but 
read}' to leave for Port Mulgravc early the next morning. 

September 18 was occu})i I'd by us in eatehing salmon and trout. 
We were abundantly successful, as every man returned to eamp 
with all that he could carry. These were spread out on a i-ack 
over our cam[)-lii'e and smoked foi' I'urthei" use, as we <lid not 
know how long our stay would l)e extended. On the ne.\t day 
tStamy and Lindsley returned from Port INIulgrave, Avhere they 



Return to Civilization. 163 

had left Kerr, quite recovered from his exposure on the moun- 
tain. Stormy weather continued, and a gale from the northeast 
piled the ice high on the heach and threatened to sweep away 
our tents, as has already been briefly described in earlier pages. 

On Sejitember 20, our tents having been beaten in l)y a 
violent storm and our camping place overflowed Ijy the waters 
from a lake above us, we removed our goods to a place of safety 
and went to Dalton's cabin, where we awaited better weather. 
The morning of September 23 dawned clear and l)right, and 
after drying our clothes around a blazing camp-fire, we started 
back to our camping place on the shore. Before reaching there, 
however, we were rejoiced to see the Corivin coming up the bay. 
It took us but a short time to get on board, where Captain C. L. 
Hooper, her commander, did everything in his power to make 
us welcome and comfortable. To him we are indel)te<l for a 
delightful voyage back to civilization. 

After steaming up Disenchantment bay nearlj^ to the ice-cliffs 
of the Hubl)ard glacier, and obtaining a fine view of the glaciers 
about Disenchantment bay, the Corwiii, returned to Port Mulgrave 
and, on Sej)tember 25, put to sea. After a splendid ocean pas- 
sage, we arrived at Port Townsend on Octol:)er 2. 

During our stay in Alaska not a man was seriously sick and 
not an accident hapjiened. The work planned at the start was 
carried out almost to the letter, with the exception that snow- 
storms and the lateness of the season did not permit us to reach 
the summit of Mount St. Elias. 

Suggestions. 

Should another attempt be made to climb Mount St. Elias, 
the shortest and most practicable route from the coast would be 
to land at Icy bay and ascend the Agassiz glacier. The course 
taken by us in 1890 could be intersected just north of where the 
tributary glacier from Dome pass joins the main ice-stream ; and 
from there the^ route followed last summer would he the most 
practicable. A camp should he estaV)lished on the divide between 
Mount St. Elias and Mount Newton, from which excursions to 
either of these peaks could be made in a single day. 

In the preceding narrative many details have been omitted. 
One of these is that tents, together with lilankets, rations, etc., 
were left at two convenient ]ioiiits l)etween Blossom island and 



164 I. ('. JiU.s.^cK — Krpcditioii to Mount St. Elian. 

the Agassiz glacier, and were used hy the men in 1)rin<i;ing up 
sii])i)He8. In attempting to ascend ^fount St. EHas from Icy 
l)ay hy tlie route suggested, at h>ast three such rehiy stations 
should be established Ix'tween the C'haix hills, where wood for 
camp- tires can be obtained (as is known from the reports of the 
New York 7V/Hf.sMind To]ibaiii cxpcMlitions ), and the liigli caiiip 
on the divide. The relay camps suggested should be one day's 
march apart, and would serve not only for sto])])ing ])laces while 
carrying rations during the advance, l)ut would furnish a line of 
retreat. A i)arty making this journey should l»e i)rovide(l witii 
snow-shoes, which unfortunately we did not take with us. 

All rations intended for use above the snow-line should be 
packed in tin cans, each of sufficient size to hold betAveen tifty 
and sixty pounds, and each should be securely soldered. All 
articles packed in this way should be thoroughly dry and should 
be packed in a dry, warm room. A\'hen secured in this manner 
they are about as easy to carry as if packed in bags, and can be 
" cached " anywhere out of the reach of iioods and avalanches, 
with the certainty of being serviceable when wanted. The more 
perishal)le articles to be used wliere camp-fires are possil)le should 
also be secured in tin cans. Sacks of Hour, corn-meal, etc., should 
be protected by an outer covering of strong canvas. The expe- 
rience of last sunmier showed that the cans of rations intendi'd 
for use al)ove the snow-line should each contain al)out the fol- 
lowing ration, which may l)e varied to suit individual taste: 

Bacon, smoked . . . . .10 lbs. 

Corned beef, in can . . . . (i " 
Flour and corn-meal, with necessary (piautity of l)akiiig 

powder . . . . . . 15 " 

Coffee ' . 2 '' 

Rolled oats . . . . . . 5 " 

Sugar 5 " 

Chocolate, sweet . . . . . 2 " 

Salt I " 

Extract of beef . . . . ^ . 1 " 

Tobacco i " 

Condensed milk (small cans) . . .2 

Matches (wax) ..... 1 box. 

Our ex])erience wiib oibstovcs sliowcil thai (licy are service- 
able. \\'bile oil tlie iiiarcb lliev can lie ean'ie<I as hand packs in 



Oaffit required for Mounting Climbing. 165 

gunny-sacks. Rectangular cans holding about a gallon each, 
with small screw-tops, were found convenient for carrying coal 
oil. The experience of Arctic explorers indicates that alcohol 
would perhaps lie better than coal oil to use in snow-camps. 

Among the most important articles to be provided arc strong 
shoes or boots ; of these ea(;h man should have at least twt) pairs. 
Strong hip-l3oots, with lacings over the instep, are exceedingly 
serviceable, ^^llen sleeping on the ice the boot-legs may be 
spread beneath one's blankets and the feet used as a pillow. The 
long legs are serviceable alike in the thick brush on the shore 
and in the deep snow on the high mountains. A\'ith their pro- 
tection, man}' streams can be waded without getting wet. Leather, 
waxed ends, awls, etc., for repairing boots, and tallow mixed with 
])ees-wax for greasing them, should be taken and distributed in 
part through the cans of rations. Heavy woolen socks are in- 
dispensable, and an effort should be made to have a dry pair 
always at hand. This may be arranged, even under the most 
unfavorable conditions, l:)y drying "a pair as thoroughly as is con- 
venient and carrying them in the bosom of one's shirt. 

Long alpenstocks are always necessary. My own choice is a 
stiff one of hickory, about six feet long and an inch and a quarter 
in diameter, provided with a spike and hook at one end and a 
chisel al)out two inches l)road at the other. Ice axes are desir- 
able while climl)ing in the high mountains, but even more ser- 
viceable are light axes of the usual pattern, but with handles 
about fourteen inches long; these supj^lement the alpenstock, 
and when not actually in use are carried in the packs. 

Each man should be provided with a water-tight match-ljox, 
and should have, besides, a bundle of wax matches wrapi^ed in 
oil-cloth and sewed in the collar of his shirt, to be held as a last 
reserve. Each man should also have a small water-tight bag in 
which to carry salt enough to last a week or ten days, in case he 
has to live by hunting or fishing. A heavy hunting knife is very 
convenient, and can be used not only in cutting trails through 
thick brush, but in cases of necessity is serviceable in making 
steps in ice. Heavy woolen clothing is preferalde to furs, t^leep- 
ing bags were not used during our expedition, but are highly 
rec(nnmended l)y others. For protection at night, a thick woolen 
blanket vrith a light canvas cover and a sheet of light rubber 
cloth to })rotect it are all tliat is necessary. Our tents were of 
cotton drilling, seven feet square and a1)out six feet bigli. and 

2:J— Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. Ill, I8i)l. 



16() 7. ('. Iliixsrn—KxpnlUtnn fn Mniiiif Sf . EUafi. 

provided with ridge-ropes. Alpenstocks were used for tent poles. 
" Sou'westers " and strong water-proof coats are indispensalilc in 
a cliuiatc like tliat of Alaska, and at niglit may l)e used as a sub- 
stratum on which to slee[i. AMiile traveling over the snow-line 
we used colored glasses to protect the eyes, and also found that 
a strip of dark mosquito netting tied across the face, below the 
eyes afforded great protection. 8ome of the party found relief 
from the glare of tlie snow Ijy blacking their faces with grease 
and burnt cork, but one experiment with that method is usually 
enough. While camping IjcIow tindier-line during the months 
of June to September tine mosfjuito netting is indispensal^le. lii 
carrying packs, hemp " cod-line " of the largest size was found to 
answer every requirement, and is preferred l>y expei't packers to 
l)ack -straps. 

It has l)een suggested that experienced Swiss guides are neces- 
sary to ensure success in clim1)ing Mount St. Elias. Having 
never followed a guide in the mountains, I am not able to judge 
of their ettieiency, but it must l)e remenil)ere(l that no one can 
guide in a region that has never been traversed. The " guide '' as 
understood in p]urope is unknown in America. In the explora- 
tion of this country by engineers, geologists, etc., the camp liands 
have followed their leaders and have not shown them the way. 
In every frontier town there are hunters, trappers, miners, pros- 
i:)ectors, cow-boys, voyageurs, etc. — men wlio have passed their 
lives on the jdains or among •' the hills " and are enured to hard- 
ship and danger. This is the best material in the world from 
which to recruit an exploring party. A foreigner engaging the 
services of such men must take into account the independent 
spirit that animates them and is the secret of their usefulness. 
They are not servants, Imt retainers ; that too in regions far 
beyond the reach of civil law. They will follow their leader 
anywliere, su])poi-t bini in aJl dangers, and do their work faitb- 
fully so long as their rights as men are respected. 

By taking proper precautions wliile traveling across crevassed 
snow and ice, and guarding against avalanches and snow-blind- 
ness, an excursion can be made above the snow-line with as little 
danger as in Ijetter known and more frequented regions. 



PART III. 

SKETCH OF THE GEOLOGY OF THE 8T. ELIAS 

REGION. 

General Features. 

In the preceding narrative, many references have been made 
to the character of the rocks and to the geologiciil structure of 
the region explored. It was not practicable during the journey 
to carry on detailed geological studies, but such facts as were 
noted are of interest, for this reason, if for no other : they relate 
to a country previously unknown. 

My reconnoissance enaljled me to determine that there are 
three well-defined formations in the St. Elias region. These are — - 

1. The sandstones and shales about Yakutat bay and west- 
ward along the foot of the mountain to Icy liay, named the la- 
kutat system. 

2. A system of probal:)ly later date, composed of shale, con- 
glomerate, limestone, sandstone, etc., best exposed in the cliffs 
of Pinnacle pass and along the northern and western l)orders of 
the Samovar hills, and named the Pumade system. 

3. The metamorphic rocks of the main St. Elias range, called 
the St. Elias schist. 

Yakutat System. 

The rocks of this system arc of gray and brown sandstones and 
nearly black shales. They are uniform in lithological character 
over a large area, and are usually greatly crushed and seamed. 
So great has been the crushing to which they have been subjected 
that it is difficult to work out a hand spe3imen with fre-^h sur- 
faces. Fragments broken out with a hammer are almost inva- 
riably bounded by plains of previous crushing, and are usually 
somewhat weathered. 

These rocks form the l)old shores of Yakutat and Disenchant- 
ment Ijays, and were the only rocks seen along our route from 
Yakutat bay to Pinnacle pass. The whole of the Hitchcock 
range is composed of rocks of this series, as are also the Chaix 

(167) 



IGS I. (\ J:iis.s(l/—Krjn(lillo„ fn M<,iii,i St. Eli,(s. 

hills and the hills west of Icy 1)ay and the soutlicrn imrtioii of 
the Samovar hills. North of Pinnacle i>ass there are rocks undis- 
tinguishahle lithogically from tliose about Yakutat l)ay. These 
are exposed in Mount Owen and on cadi side of Dome pass; 
they also form the bold s[)urs al)out tlu' immediate bases of 
Mount Augusta, Mount Malaspina, and Mount St. Elias. In the 
three instances last named these rocks dij) beneath the schist 
forming the crest of the St. Elias range, and it is prol)able that a 
great overthrust there took place before tlic to i-i nation of the 
faults to which the present relief of the mcjuntains is due. 

All the mountain spurs of Blount Cook, so far as is known, are 
composed of sandstones and sliales of the Yakutat series, with 
the exception of the Pinnacle i)ass cliffs. Nearly all tlie del)ris 
on the glaciers from Disenchantment bay to the Seward glacier, 
and ])robably lieyond, is derived from the rocks of this system. 
The distribution of the rocks from which the debris was derived 
may be ascertained in a general way by tracing out the sources 
of the glaciers. Medial moraines on the Plaj^den and Marvine 
glaciers, however, have their sources on the northern slope of 
Mount Cook, and are composed of gal)bro and serpentine. These 
rocks were not seen in place, and their relation to the Yakutat 
series can only l)e conjectured. 

Although the rocks of this system are stratified, it is impossi- 
l)le to determine their tliickness, for the reason that tliey have 
Ijcen greatly crushed and overthrust. This is well illustrated in 
the Hitchcock range, wliich, as already explained, trends about 
northeast and southwest, and is composed of strata of shale and 
sandstone, having a nearly east-and-west strike and a luiiform 
dip toward the northeast. Were the rocks in normal jjosition 
their thickness would be incredible. In addition to this nega- 
tive evidence, there is the crushed condition of the strata to sliow 
that movement lias taken i)lacc all tlirough their mass: and in 
a few instances thrust faults were distinguished, dipping north- 
eastward at al)0ut the same angle as the lines of bedding. In 
the; crushing to which the rocks have been subjected the shales 
have suflered more than the sandstones, and have ])een drawn 
out into wedge-shaped masses, the sliarp edges of which usually 
])oint toward the northeast, which is i)resuinably the dii'cction 
from which the crushing force acted. 

The hyi)othesis that the rocks in the St. Elias region liave 
been crushed and overthrust ex])lains many otherwise inhar- 



Coal ill tJic Yakutnt Systeni. 169 

mouious facts, and accounts for the superposition of the iSt. Elias 
scliist upon rocks of the Yakutat system. 

Coal has been discovered in the rocks of the Yakutat system 
al^out two miles west of the southern end of Disenchantment 
bay, and is reported to be of workable thickness. I saw thin 
lignite seams at the surface at this locality, but as the shafts were 
filled with water I was unable to examine the coal in the open- 
ings, and cannot vouch for its thickness. Samples obtained from 
the mine show it to be a black lignite which would apparently 
be of value for fuel. Fossil leaves are reported to occur in con- 
nection with the lignite, but these have never been seen by any 
one who could identify them. 

The rocks of the Yakutat svstem, wherever seen, dip north- 
eastward, except when greatly disturbed near fault-lines. East 
of Disenchantment bay the inclination of the l)eds is from 15° to 
20° ; farther westward the dip increases gradually all the way to 
the Hitchcock range, where the prevailing inclination is from 
30° to 40°, and frequently still greater. Beneath Mount Malas- 
pina and Mount St. Elias the Yakutat sandstones dip northeast- 
ward at an angle of about 15°, and in the hills west of Icy Imy 
the dip is about the same. Exceptions to the prevailing dips 
occur along the immediate shore of Yakutat bay, northwest of 
Knight island, and at the southern extremity of each of the 
mountain spurs between Yakutat bay and Blossom island. At 
these localities the rocks are freqviently vertical or nearly so, owing 
their high cliiD to the proximity of lines of displacement. The 
faults indicated by these unusual dips also mark the boundary 
between the mountains and the seaward-stretching jjlateau of 
alluvium and ice. 

The crushing, overthrusting and faulting that has affected the 
rocks of this system render it dou])tful whether the coal scams 
whicli occur in it, even if of requisite thickness, can be worked to 
advantage. Some of the samples of coal obtained at the open- 
ings made near Yakutat ])ay were slickcnsided, showing that 
movements in the coal seam had there taken place. 

As already stated, the rocks of the Yakutat series are remark- 
ably uniform in character throughout the extent now known, 
and offer but little variety. The sandstones are intersected in 
every direction by thin quartz seams, which stand in relief on 
the weathered surfaces, giving the rocks a peculiar and charac- 



170 1. ('. /iiiss(l( — E.i'i)((Hli<iii hi Mount SI. I'Jllds. 

terislic appcariuicc. The liist iiii|Mir(;iiit cliau'ic in the licoloiry 
along the route traversed liy us was met on reiieliing Pinnacle 
pass. 

Pi XX ACLK System. 

Tlu' i-ocks of this system, as already stateil, are best ex})()se(l 
in the great fault-scarp forming th(^ northern wall of Pinnacle 
pans. They are more varied in composition and have preserved 
a better recoi'd ol' the conditions under which they were depositi'd 
than the sandstont's and shales of the Vakutat system. 

Only an a])proximate section of the rocks exi)osetl in the Pin- 
nacle-pass clitfwas olitaini'(l. 

Sandstone and conglomi'rate weathering into si)ires . 
Evenly bedded, sandy shale in thin layers 
Coarse conglomerate; bowldci-s of crystalline rock . 
Thinly bedded, dark-colored sandstone and shale 
Reddish conglomerate . . . 

Light-gray sandstone, with thin, irregular coal seams 

1\:)tal . ... . . 1,S00 •' 

There is also a cnnn>act, crystalline, gray limestone near the 
upper portion of the scries, whicli escaped notice in the clitts. 
At the end of tlu; Pinnacle-pass cliffs, however, wdiere the rocks 
are turned northward by the gr(>at fault which decides the course 
of the Sewaird glacier, and dip eastward at a high angle, the lime- 
stone is well exposed, and has a, thickness of about 50 feet. In 
many places the surfaces of the layers are covered with fragments 
of large Pectcn shells. Associated with the limestone there are 
reddish shales, much crushed and broken, and a peculiar con- 
glomerate. The j)ebbles in the conglomerate are of many varie- 
ties, and were observed at places along the Pinnacle i)ass cliffs. 
Their most marked peculiarity lies in the fact that they liave 
been sheared by a moviMncnt in the rocks and sometimes broken 
into several fragments wdiich have been reunited, jirobably by 
pressure. These faulted pcblilcs are characteristic of the strata 
from which they were dcri\('(l. Similar pcbl)lcs wciH' afterward 
obtained in the Marvine glacier near its junction with the j\hdas- 
l)ina glacier, thus indicating that there are other outcroi)s of the 
coin4lomerate aliout Mount Cook, near where the Marvine glacier 



oOO feet. 


(;()0 '^ 


oO " 


oIK) '' 


10 " 


40 " 



Ff).<i.'<ih from Pinnade Pass. 



171 



has its source. Two quartz pebljlcs from the conglomerate of 
Pinnacle pass are shown in the accompanying illustrations. The 
larger pel)l)le (shown in figure 7) is of bluish-gray, cjuartz, and 
the smaller one (depicted in figure 8) is of white quartz. The 
fragments into which they have been broken are now firmly 
united. The engravings are photo-mechanical (Moss process) 
reproductions from the objects. 

In the northern and western part of the Samovar hills the 
rocks of the Pinnacle system again appear, forming a bold angu- 
lar ridge, curving southward and reaching the border of the 
Agassiz glacier. The southern face of this range is precij)itous 
and, like the Pinnacle pass cliffs, exhibits the edges of northward- 
dipping strata . Its northern and western slopes are heavily snow- 
bound. It is in reality a continuation of the Pinnacle i)ass fault, 
but thrown out of line by the cross-fault wliich marked out the 
course of the Seward (ilacier. 





Figure 7 — FduJied Pehhlc from Piiinacle Pass. 



The Yakutat and Pinnacle systems are so easily recognized 
that tlieir distrilnition can 1)e distinguislied at a glance, when 
the outcrops are n(jt concealed beneath the nearly universal 
covering of snow. The rocks of the Yakutat series are heavily 
bedded sandstones and shales, and have in general a light-brown 
tint ; while the rocks of the Pinnacle series are thinly bedded 
and dark in color, appearing ])lack at a distance. 

Tlie presence of a Pecten (P. caurinns (?) Gld.) in the limestone 
of the Pinnacle series lias already been mentioned. Other fossils 
were ol)tained from sandstones and sliales at tlie crest of the 
cliff's abo\'e Pinnacle pass at an elevation of o.OOO feet. These 



172 /. C. llnssell — Expedition to Mount St. Ellas. 

were sul)niitte(l to Dr. \\'. II. Dall, win* kindly idciitilicd tlicin 
as folloAvs : 

Mi/ti (irciKirid, \j. ; 

MijtUiiK ediillsj L. ; 

Lcda foxso, liaird, or /.. miinitd, l*'al)r. ; 

Macomn inconsj^iriKi, W. and S. ; 

C(i rd I nm Island Iriim, L. ; 

Lltorhta athtna, Dall. 

All of these species are stated liy Dall to l>c still lixiiiL: in the 
oceanie waters of Alaska. The very recent auc of the rocks in 
which thev occur is tlms estahlished. 




Figure cS — I'millnl r,!,hlr from Pinnnrlf P(i.<<f!. 



In strata closely connected with the layers in which these shells 
were found there occui" many fine leaf impressions, a few of 
which were hrouuht away. These have hecMi examined l)y Pro- 
fessor L. F. Ward, who has identified them with foui' species of 
Sallx, closely resemljliny; livin<;' spcn-ies. The report on these in- 
teresting fossils forms Appendix D. 

Tlie age indicated by both invertel)rates and })lants is late Ter- 
tiary (Pliocene) or early Pleistocene. This determination is of 
great significance Avh en taken in connection with the structure 
of the region, and shows that the mountains in the St. Klias 
region arc young. 

Not only was a ])art, at least, of the Pinnacle system deposited 
during the lite of living six'cies of moUusks, but also the whole 
of the Vakutat series, the stratigraphic ])osition t)f which is, if 
my determination is cori'ect, above the I'innacle system. Alter 
the sediments composing the rocks of these two series were de- 



Age of fJie Phniacle Series. l73 

posited in the sea as strata of sand, mud, etc., they were consoli- 
dated, overtlirust, faulted, and upheaved into one of the grandest 
mountain ridges on the continent. Then, after the mountains 
had reached a considerable height, if not their full growth, the 
snows of winter fell upon them, and glaciers were born ; the 
glaciers increased to a maximum, and their surfaces reached 
from a thousand to two thousand feet higher than noAv on the 
more southern mountain spurs, and afterward slowly wasted 
away to their present dimensions. All of this interesting and 
varied history has l.)een enacted during the life of existing species 
of plants and animals. 

The relative age of the Yakutat and Pinnacle series is the 
weakest i:>oint in the liistory sketched above. The facts on which 
it rests are as follows : At Pinnacle pass the sandstones and 
shales forming the southern wall belong to the Yakutat system 
and are much disturbed, while the northern wall, or the heaved 
side of the fault, is composed of the rocks of the Pinnacle sys- 
tem, inclined northward at an angle of 30° or 40°. North of 
this fault-scarp, in the foothills of Mount Owen, sandstones and 
shales, seemingly identical with those of the Yakutat system, 
again occur, although their direct connection with the rocks 
south of Pinnacle pass was not observed, owing to the snow that 
obscured the outcrops. Again at Dome pass a similar relation 
seems evident, but cannot be directly established. The imme- 
diate foothills of Mounts Augusta, Malaspina, and St. Elias are 
also of sandstone, lithologically the same as the Yakutat series. 
The conclusion that the Yakutat system is younger than the 
Pinnacle-pass rocks was reached in the field after many other 
hypotheses had been tried and found wanting, and to my mind 
it explains all the ol>servations made. Even should the sup- 
posed relations of the two series under discussion be reversed, it 
would still l)e_true that a very large part of the rocks of the 8t. 
Elias region were deposited since the appearance of living species 
of mollusks and plants, and that the prevailing structure of the 
region was imjiosed at a still later date. This will appear more 
clearly after examining the structure of the region. 

St. Elias Schist. 

The rock forming several tliousand feet of tlie ujtpcv ])()rtion 
of the St. Elias range is a schist in which the ])lanes of l)edding 

2-1— Nat. Geoo. Mao., vol. Ill, Is'Jl. 



174 /. ('. Tiiisi^cll — Expedilinn to Momd St. Klias. 

arc jn'eservod. The dip of the strata is northeastward, and has 
exerted a decided inilucnce on the wcathcrin,i>- of" the mountain 
crests. As tlie opiiortunitics for cxaniiniiiu' this I'oiMnation wcri' 
unsatisfactory, a <lctaih'd accounl of it will \uA now he nttciiiptcd. 

GK()L0<;I('AL STKrCTl"]{E. 

The al)noi'inal tliickncss ol'tlu' Vakutat series, due to crushinn- 
and overthrust, has been referred to, as has also the su{)erposi- 
tion of tlie St. Elias schist upon rock sup])osed to l)elong to the 
Yakutat system. 

The i)lane of contact between the sandstone and the overlying 
schist of the St. Elias range dips northeastward at an angle of 
about lo°, corresponding, as nearly as can be determined, with 
the di}) of the strata in the sandstone itself. All of tlie oliscrva- 
tions made in this connection indicate that tlie schist lias been 
overthrust upon the sandstones. After this took place the great 
faults to whicii the range owes its present relief were formed. 

Al)out Blount Cook, however, and in the elevated ])lateau east 
of Yakutat bay, the conditions are ditt'erent from those observed 
along the base of the St. Elias range. The only displacements 
known in the Yakutat system south and east of Pinnacle pass is 
the great fault which presumably exists where the rocks of the 
foothills disai)pear 1)eneatli the gravel and glaciers of the Pied- 
mont region, the faidts referred to belonging to the same series 
as those which determine the southern and soutliAvestern borders 
of the St. Elias range and many of the foothills south of the main 
escarpment. Besides the great faults which trend from St. Elias 
toward the northeast and northwest, there are several cross-faults, 
one of whicli determines the position of the Seward glacier 
through a portion of its course, while another marks out the 
l)ath of the Agassiz glacier; and two others may be recognized 
just east of the summit of St. Elias, which have dro])])ed ])or- 
tions of the eastern end of the orographic block foniiiiig tlie 
crowning i)eak of the range. 

The southern face of INlount St. Elias is a fault-scarp. The 
mountain itself is formed by the upturned edge of a faulted 
block in which the stratification is inclined northeastward. As 
has just l)een mentioned, the mountain stands at tlie intersection 
of two lines of disphiccmeiit, one trending in a northeasterly and 
the other in a i lortli west cr!\' direction. The one t rciidinu- north- 



Age of tlic St. Ellas Baiu/e. 175 

westward extends beyond the end of the northeast laidt. The 
point of union is at the pass between Mount St. EHas and Mount 
Newton. The upturned block, bounded on the southwest by a 
great fault, projects beyond the junction with the northeasterly 
fault. It is this projecting end of a roof-like block that forms 
Mount St. Elias. That this is the case may be clearly seen when 
viewing the mountain from the glacier near the base of Mount 
Owen. Such a view is shown on plate 20. The crest-line of St. 
Elias extends with a decreasing grade northwestward from the 
culminating peak, and the northern slope of the ridge is the sur- 
face of the tilted l)lock. 

From what has been stated already, it will be seen that the St. 
Elias range is young. Its upheaval, as indicated l)y our present 
knowledge, was since the close of the Tertiary. The breaking of 
the rocks and their upheaval is an event of such recent date that 
erosion has scarcely modified the forms which the mountains 
had at their birth. The formation of glaciers followed the ele- 
vation of the region so quickly that there was no opj^ortunity 
for streams to act. The ice drainage is consequent upon the 
geological structure, and has made but slight changes in the 
topography due to that structure. 

Al)out Mount Cook, and in the elevated plateau east of Yakutat 
bay, there has been deeper erosion than about Mount St. Elias. 
The glaciers in this region occupy deep valleys radiating from 
the higher peaks ; but whether these are really valleys of erosion 
is not definitely known. In some instances, changes of dip on 
opposite sides of the valleys indicate that they may in part be 
due to faulting ; but, owing principally to the fact that every 
1:)asin has its glacier, it has not been practicable, u]) to the present 
time, to determine how they were formed. 

The crests of the mountains are always sharp and angular, by 
reason of the rapid weathering of their exposed summits, but 
while disintegration is rapid, no evidences of pronounced decay 
are noticeable. The peaks on the summits of the St. Elias range 
are either pyramids or roof-like crests with triangular gables. 
These forms have resulted from the weathering of schist in Avhich 
the planes of bedding are crossed by lines of jointing. 



I'AKT IV. 

GLACIEIJS OF THE ST. KM AS HPXMON. 

Nati'hal Divisions ok CiLAciKKS. 

The glaciers of the St. Elias region form two groups. The ice- 
streams from the ipountain are of the type found in Switzer- 
land, and hence termed Alpine glaciers. Tlie great plateau of ice 
along the ocean formed by the union and expansion of Alpine 
glaciers from the mountains belongs to a class not previously 
described, but which in this paper have been called Piedmont 
glaciers. The representative of the latter ty})e l)etween Yakutat 
bay and Icy bay is the Malaspina glacier. Both types are to l)e 
distinguished from Continental (/laciers. 

Alpine Glaciers. 

Tlie glaciers in the mountains are all of one type, but })resent 
great diversity in their secondary features, and might be sepa- 
rated into three or four suljordinatc divisions. The great trunk 
glaciers have many tril)utaries, and drain the snows from the 
mountains through liroad cliannels, which are of low grade 
throughout all the lower portions of their courses. Besides the 
trunk glaciers and the secondary glaciers which flow into them, 
there are many smaller glaciers which do not join the main 
streams, but terminate in the gorges or on the exposed mountain 
sides in which they originate. These have nearly all the feat- 
ures of the larger streams, but are not of sufUcicnt vokime to 
become rivers of ice. 

A miiiDr division of iMpine glaciers for wliidi it is convenient 
to have a S})ecial name includes those that end in the sea and, 
breaking off, form icel)ergs. These may l)e designated as " tide- 
water glaciers." Typical exam2)les of this class ai'c runiishcd 
by the Dalton and Hubbard glaciers, ])ut other ice-streams luiv- 
ing the same cliaracteristics occur in Glacier l)ay, in Taku inlet, 
and at the lieads of several of the deep tjords along the coast of 
southeastern Alaska. 

(]7(i) 



The Seward Glacier. 177 

A noticeal:»le feature t)f the Alpine glaciers of Alaska is that 
they expand on passing beyond the valleys through which they 
flow and form delta-like accumulations of ice on the plains be- 
low. This expansion takes place irrespective of the direction in 
which the glaciers flow, and, so far as may be judged from the 
many examples examined, is independent of the debris that 
covers them. It should be remembered, however, that none of 
the Alaskan glaciers thus far studied show marked ineiiualities 
in the distribution of the moraines upon their surfaces. Should 
one side of a glacier, on leaving a canon, be heavily loaded with 
marginal moraines, while the opposite border was unprotected, 
it is to he presumed that a deflection of the ice would take place 
similar to the change in direction recorded by the moraines 
about Mono lake, C'alifornia.* The normal tendency of ice, 
when not confined, to expand in all directions and form a 
plateau is illustrated on a grand scale by the Malaspina glacier. 

The most important ice-streams about Mount St. Elias and 
Mount Cook are indicated on tlie map forming plate 8. The 
Tindall, Guyot, and Libbey glaciers and the lower part of the 
Agassiz glacier there represented are taken from a map jiub- 
lished by H. W. Topham.t All -of the other glaciers indicated 
on the map were hastily surveyed during the present expedition 
and are described to some extent in the accompanying narrative. 
By far the most im})ortant of these is the one named the Seward 
Glacier. 

The Seward Glacier is of the Alpine type, and is the largest 
trilnitary of the Malaspina glacier. Its length is approximately 
40 miles, and it^ width in the narrowest part, opposite Camp 
fourteen, is about 8 miles. The main amjjhitheatre from which 
its drainage is derived is north of Mount Owen and between 
Mount Irving and Mount Logan. The general surface of the 
liroad level floor of this neve field has an elevation of approxi- 
mately 5,000 feet. The snow from the .northern and western 
sides of Mount Irving, from the northern slope of IVIount Owen, 
and from numerous valleys and canons in the vast semicircle of 
towering peaks joining these tw(J mountains, unite to form the 
great glacier. There is another amphitheatre l)ctween Mount 
Owen and the Pinnacle pass clifts supplied princi})ally l)y snows 

* Eighth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., 1889, part I, pp. 360-366. 
t Alpine Journal, London, vol. XIV, 1887, pi. op. p. 359. 



178 1. ('. litinf^cU — Krjxi/ifinn. lo Mninil SI. I'^ias. 

from the northwt'stcni Ao\)v of Mount (\)ok, which sends a vast 
Hood of ice and snow into the main drainage channel. Otlier 
tributary glaciers descend the steep slopes of Mount Augusta 
and ]\rount Malasi)ina, and a lesser tri])utarv flows eastward 
from I )onie pass. All of these ice-drainage lines converge toward 
the narrow outlet of Camp 14 ( plate 8) and discharge southward 
down a moderately steep descent several miles in length. Below 
Camp 14 there are other neve fields bordering the glacier, which 
contribute no insignificant amount of ici' and snow to its mass. 
Between the extremity of the Hitchcock range and the Samovar 
hills the path of Ijie gkicier is again contracted and greatly 
broken as it descends to the i)lateau below. 

The Seward glacier, like all ice rivers of its class, has its neve 
region above, and its ice region below. The limit between the 
two is the lower margin of the sunmier snoAv, and occurs just 
above the ice-fall between the southern extremity of the Hitch- 
cock range and the Samovar liills. All the neve region is pure 
white and without moraines, except at the immediate bases of 
the most precipitous cliffs. At the bases of the Corwin cliffs, 
wdiich rise fully 2,000 feet above its border, no debris can be dis- 
tinguished even in midsummer. An absence of moraines along 
the base of Pinnacle pass cliffs was also noticed during our first 
visit, l)ut when we returned over the same route in September 
the melting of the snow had revealed 'many large patches of dirt 
and disintegrated rock. In several places near the bases of 
steep cliffs, strata of dirty ice, containing many stones, Avere ol)- 
served in dee]) crevasses. It was evident that vast (luantities of 
debris were sealed up in the ice along the l)orders of the glacier, 
only to appear at the surface fai'down the stream where summer 
melting exceeds the winter accumulation. 

The surface of the glacier below the lower fall is composed of 
solid ice with blue and white bands, and has broad moraines 
along its borders. The course of the glacier, after entering the 
great ])lateau of ic(! to which it is tributary, may lie traced for 
many miles 1)V the bands of debris along its sides. These mo- 
raines behmg to the ^lalaspina glacier, and have already been 
referred to. 

At the outlet ol' the upper amphitheatre, about (5 miles above 
Mount Owen,thcic is an ice-fall which extends completely across 
the glacier. Below tlie pinnacles and crevasses formed by this 
fall the ice is recemented :iud Hows on with a broad, gently de- 



Ice- Falls and Ice- Rapids. 179 

scending surface, gashed, however, by thousands of crevasses, as 
shown in phite 20, to the end of the Pinnacle pass cliflfs. It 
there finds a more rapid descent, and becomes crevassed in an 
interesting way. The sh^pe is not sutHcient to be termed a fall, 
but causes a rapid in the ice-stream. 

The change of grade in the bed of the ghicier is first felt about 
a mile above Camp 14. A series of crevasses there begins, which 
extends four or five miles down-stream. At first the cracks are 
narrow, and trend upstream in the manner usual with marginal 
crevasses. Soon the cracks from the opposite sides meet in the 
center and form a single crevasse, bending upstream in the middle. 
A little lower down, the crevasse becomes straight, showing that 
the ice in the center of the current flows more rapidly than at 
the sides. The more rapid movement of the center is indicated 
by the form of the crevasses all the way down the rapid. After 
becoming straight they bow in the center and form semi-lunar 
gashes, widest in the center and curving up-stream at each ex- 
tremity. Still farther down they become more and more bent 
in the center and at the same time greatly increased in breadth. 
Still lower the curve becomes an angle and the crevasses are 
V-shaped, the arrow-like point directed down-stream. These 
parallel V-f^haj^ed gashes set in order, one in front of the other, 
are what gives the glacier the appearance of " watered " ribbon 
when seen from a distance. 

With the change in direction and curvature of the crevasses, 
there is an accompanying change in color. The cracks in tlie 
upper part of the rapid are in a white surface and run down into 
ice that looks dark and blue by contrast. Lower down, as the 
cracks increase in width, broad white tal)les are left between 
them. Cross-fractures are formed, and the sides of the table 
begin to cruml)le in and fill up the gaps between. As the sur- 
face melts the tables lose their pure whiteness and become dust- 
covered and yellow ; but the blocks falling into the crevasses 
expose fresh surfaces, and fill the gulfs with pure white ice. In 
this way the color of the sides of the crevasses changes from deep 
blue to white, while the general surface loses its purity and 
becomes dust-covered. Far down the rapid where the V-shaped 
crevasses are most pointed, the tables have crumbled away and 
filled up the gulfs l)etween, so that the watered-rilibon pattern 
is distinguished by color alone. The scars of the crevasses 
foiMucd above are shown l)v white hands on a dark dust-covered 



180 /. C. IhisscIl—E.i-p('(Ufloii to Mount SI. Ellas. 

surface. I^i'torc tlio lower fall is reached nearly all traces of 
the thousands of tissures formed in the rapids above have dis- 
appeared. 

On lookinii; down on the rapids from any commanding ])oint, 
the definite arrangement of the crevasses along the center of the 
ice-stream at once attracts attention, and their order suggests a 
rapid central current in the stream. 

Ik'low Cam]) 14, for at least two or tlircc miles, as well as at 
many ])laces above that point, the Sewai'd glacit'r th)ws lietween 
banks of snou'. Along its border there are marginal crevasses 
trending up-stream, and in the adjacent banks there are similar 
breaks trending down-stream. Where the two systems meet' 
there is a line of irregular crevasses, exceedingly difficult to 
cross, which mark the actual border of the flowing ice. A simi- 
lar arrangement of marginal crevasses and of shore crevasses has 
been referred to in connection with the IVfarvine glacier, and was 
observed in many othci- instances. 

Wliile occupying Camp 14 we could hear the murmur of waters 
far down in the glacier below our tent, l)ut there were no surface 
streams visible. Crashing and rumbling noises made by the 
slowly moving ice frecpiently attracted our attention, and some- 
times at night we would be awakened by a dull thud, accom- 
panied by a trembling of the rocks beneath us, as if a slight 
earth(|uake had occurred. Occasionally a i:)innacle of ice would 
fall and l)e engulfed in the crevasses at its base. These evidences 
of change indicated that movements in the 8ewai-d glacier were 
constantly in progress. A short base-line was measured and sights 
taken to well-marked i)oints in the Seward glacier for the i)urpose 
of measuring its motion. The angles between the base-line and 
lines of sight to the chosen ]ioints were read on several successive 
days, but when these observations were compared they gave dis- 
crepant results. The measurements Avhich seemed most reliable 
indicate that the central part of the ice-stream has a movcnnent 
of about twenty feet a day. This is to be taken only as an a]i- 
proximation, which needs to l)e verified before much weight can 
be attached to it. 

CuARAcTKRisTrcs OP Alpine Gl-Vcifrs abovk titk Snow-Link. 

Tlie surface of the neve is white, except near it,:-; lowei- limit 
in late suuinier, wbei'e it freiuentlv becomes covered with dust 



OJiaraderistics of Crevasses. 181 

blown from neighboring cliflfs. It is almost entirely free from 
moraines, l)nt at the bases of steep slopes small areas of debris 
sometimes appear at the surface when the yearly melting has 
reached its maximum. The absence of moraines is accompanied 
by an absence of glacial tables, sand-cones and other details of 
glacial surfaces due to differential melting. Streams seldom 
appear at the surftice, for the reason that usually the water pro- 
duced by surface melting is quickly absorbed by the porous 
strata beneath ; yet the crevasses are frequently filled with water, 
and sometimes shallow lakes of deep l)lue occur at the l^ottoms 
of the amphitheatres and form a marked contrast to the even 
white of the general surface. Crevasses are present or absent 
according to the slope of the surface on which the neve rests. 
In the crevasses the edges of horizontal layers of granular ice 
are exhil:)ited, showing that the neve down to a depth of at least 
one or two hundred feet is horizontally stratified. In the St. 
Elias region the strata are most frequently from ten to fifteen 
feet thick, but in a few instances layers without partings over 
fifty feet thick were seen. The surface is always of white, gran- 
ular ice, but in the crevasses the layers near the bottom appear 
more compact and bluer in color than those near the surface. 

Some of the most striking features of the neve are due to the 
crevasses that break their surfaces. The orderly arrangement of 
marginal crevasses and of the interior crevasses at the rapids in 
the Seward glacier have already been referred to ; but there 
are still other crevasses, especially in the broad, gently sloping 
portions of the snow-fields where the motion is slight, which, 
although less regular in their arrangement, are fully as interest- 
ing. The crevasses on such slopes generally run at right angles 
to the direction in which the snow is moving. On looking down 
on such a surface, the breaks look like long clear-cut gashes 
which have stretched open in the center, l)ut taper to a sharp 
point at each end. The aljility of the neve ice to stretch to a 
limited extent is thus clearly shown. The initiation of the cre- 
vasses seems to be due to the movement of the neve ice over a 
surface in which there are inequalities of such magnitude that 
the ice cannot stretch sufiiciently to allow it to accommodate 
itself to them, so that strains are produced which result in frac- 
tures at right angles to the line of general movement. Crevasses 
found where the grade is gentle vary from a fraction of an inch 
to 10 or 15 feet in width, and are sometimes two or thr<M' thou- 

25— Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. Ill, 1891. 



182 /. f. Rnsxrll—Krpnlltion io Mnmif St. FJ'xu. 

sand feet lonu-. IJroadcr u'ulls arc srldDin toniictl unless the 
slope has an inclination of lo° or -Jd®. 

The <j;randcst crevasses are in the hiiiher portions of the neve, 
and occur es[)ecially on the ])orders of the great anij)]ntlieatres. 
In snch situations the ci'e\-asses an^ usually fewer in numher 
l)ut arcof greater size than in e<|nal areas lower down. A length 
of three or four thousand feet and a l)rea(lth of fifty feet or more 
is not unconnnon. The finest and most characteristic glacial 
sceneiy is fomul among these great canon-like breaks. Stand- 
ing on the border of one of the gulfs, as near the l)rink as one 
cares to venture, their full de])th camiot usually be seen. In 
some instances they are i)artially liUed with water ol'lhe deepest 
])lue, in which the ice-walls are refiected with such wonderful 
distinctness that it is inii)ossil)le to tell where the ice ends and 
its counterfeit l;)egins. The walls of the crevasse's are most fre- 
(piently sheer cliffs of stratified ice, with occasional ornamenta- 
tions, formed of ice-crystals or a ]K'ndent icicle. After a storm 
tliey are frequently decorated in the most Ijeautiful manner with 
fretwork and cornice of snow. The Ijridges spanning the cre- 
vasses are usually diagonal slivers of ice left where the clefts 
overlap ; but at times, especially in the case of the larger cre- 
vasses, there are true arches resembling the Natural Bridge of 
Virginia, but on a larger scale, spanning the blue canons and 
adding greatly to their strange, fairy -like l>eauty. The most 
striking feature of these cracks is their wonderful color. All 
tints, from the pure white of their crystal lips down to the deep- 
est blue of their innermost recesses, are reveahnl in each gash 
and rent in the hardened snow. 

Above the snow-line all of th(^ mountain tops that are not pre- 
cijiitous are heavily loaded with snow. \\'here the snow breaks 
off at the verge of a ])reci])ice and descends in avalanches a dei)th 
of more than a hundi'ed fet't is fre(juently revealed, but in the 
valleys and ami)hith(Mitres the snow has far greater thickness. 
Pinnacles and crests of rock, rising through the icy covering, 
indicate that the thickness of the neve nuist be many hvnidreds 
of feet. 

There are no evidences of Ibrnu'r glaciation on the mountain 
crests which project above the neve fields. There are no. i)olished 
and striated rock surfaces or glaciated domes to indicate that the 
mountains were ever covchmI by a general ca])])ing of ici\ as has 
been i)ostulate(l I'or sitnilai' mountains elsewhere. When the 



Blrci^s floiviiKj upon Glaclcrx. ISo 

glaciers had their greatest expansion the higher mountains were 
in about their present condition. The increase in the volume of 
the glaciers was felt almost entirely in their lower courses. 

Characteristics of Alpine Glaciers below the Snow-Line. 

The first feature that attracts attention on descending from the 
neve region to the more icy portion of the glaciers is the rapid 
melting everywhere taking place. Every day during the summer 
the murmur and roar of rills, l^rooks and rivers are to be heard 
in all of the ice-fields. The surface streams are usually short, on 
account of the crevasses which intercept them. They plunge 
into the gulfs, which are many times widened out by the flow- 
ing waters so as to form wells, or mouUn.s, and join the general 
drainage beneath. The streams then flow either through caverns 
in the glaciers or in tunnels at the bottoms. While traversing 
the glacier one may frequently hear the suljdued roar of rivers 
coursing along in the dark chambers beneath when no other 
indication of their existence appears at the surface. When these 
subglacial streams emerge, usually near the margin of the ice, 
they issue from archways forming the ends of tunnels, and per- 
haps flow for a mile or two in the sunlight before plunging into 
another tunnel to continue their way as before. 

The best example of a glacial river seen during our explora- 
tion was near the western border of the Lucia glacier. It is 
shown in the illustration forming plate 12, which is reproduced 
mechanically from a photograph. This Styx of the ice-world 
has been described on an earlier page. The lakes formed at the 
southern end of nearly every mountain spur projecting into the 
Malaspina glacier discharge through tunnels in the ice, which 
are similar in every way to those formed by the stream already 
mentioned. 

In the beds of the glacial streams there are deposits of sand 
and gravel, and when the streams expand into lakes these de- 
posits are spread over their bottoms in more or less regular 
sheets. When streams from the mountains empty into the 
lakes, deltas are formed. While these deltas have the same char- 
acteristics as those built in more stable water bodies, many 
changes in detail occur, owing to the fluctuation of the water 
level. 



184 I. a Unxsell— Expedition to Mount St. Klias. 

One of tlic tviiuu'ls leading to a drv lake-licil at the end of llic 
Hitchcock raniic was explored for several rods and fonnd to he 
a high, arching cavern following a tortuous course, and large 
enough to allow one to drive a coach and four through it without 
danger of collision. Its Hoor was formed of gravel and howlders, 
and its arching roof was clear ice. Here and there the courses 
of crevasses could be traced by the stones and finer del)ris that 
had fallen in from above, giving the appearance of veins in a 
iniiu'. The deposit on the floor of the tunnel rested upon ice, 
and would certainly be greatly disturl)ed and broken uj) before 
reaching a final resting place in case the glacier should melt. 
In the lake basins, also, the sand and gravel fornnng their l»ot- 
toms fre(|uently rested. upon sul)strata of ice, and are greatly 
disturl)ed when the ice melts. 

At the ends of the glaciers the sul)gla('ial and intraglacial drain- 
age issues from tunnels and Ibrms muddy streams. These 
usually flow out from the foot of a })recipice of ice, down which 
rills are continually trickling. Tlie streams flowing away from 
the glaciers are usually rapid, owing to the high grade of their 
built-up channels, and SAveep away large quantities of debris 
which is deposited along their courses. The streams widen and 
bifurcate as they flow seaward, and spread vast quantities of 
bowlders, sand, and gravel over the country to the right and left, 
not infrequently invading the forests and burying the still up- 
right trees. The deposits formed 1)y the streams are of the 
nature of alluvial fans, over which the waters meander in a 
thousand chainiels. Where this action has taken i)lace long 
enough the alluvial fans end in deltas; but .should tliere be a 
current in the sea, the debris is carried away and formed into 
beaclies and bars along adjacent shores. Should these glaciers 
disai)pear, it is evident that these great lx)wlder washes would 
form peculiar to})ographic features, unsu))ported at the apexes, 
and it nnght be ])erplexing to determine from whence came the 
waters that dei)osited them. I am not aware that similar waslies 
have been recognized along the southern boi-der of the Lauren- 
tide glaciers, but they should certainly be cx[)ected to occur 
there. 

.\nother very striking difiterence in the appearance of the 
glaciers al)ove and l)elow the snow-line is due to the prevalence 
of debris on the lower })ortion. The melting that takes place 



Disfj-ihntion of Moraiues. 185 

below the ^now-line removes the ice and leaves the roeks. In 
this manner the stones i)reviously concealed in the neve are con- 
centrated at the surface, and finally form sheets of debris many 
miles in extent. So far as my observations go, there is nothing 
to indicate that stones are brought to the surface l)y any other 
means than the one here suggested. Upward currents in the ice 
that would liring stones to the surface have been postulated by 
certain writers, l)ut nothing sustaining such an hypothesis has 
been found in Alaska. 

The moraines on the lower extremities of the Alpine glaciers 
may frequently be separated into individual ridges, which in 
many instances would furnish instructive studies ; but in no case 
has the history of these accumulations been worked out in detail. 

With the appearance of moraines at the surface come a great 
variety of phenomena due to unequal melting. Ridges of ice 
sheathed with debris, glacial tables, sand cones, etc., everywhere 
attract the attention ; but these features are very similar on all 
glaciers where the summer's waste exceeds the winter's increase, 
and have been many times described. 

The general distribution of the moraines of the lower portion 
of the Alpine glaciers of the St. Elias region merits attention. 
The moraines themselves exhdnt features not yet observed in 
other regions. From Disenchantment bay westward to the 
Seward glacier the lower portions of the ice-streams are covered 
and concealed by sheets of debris. About their margins the 
debris fields support luxuriant vegetation, and not infrequently 
are so densely clothed with flowers that a tint is given to their 
rugged surfaces. On the extreme outer margins of the moraines 
there are sometimes thickets and forests so dense as to be almost 
imj>enetrable. The best example of forest-covered moraines 
resting on living glaciers, however, is found along the borders of 
the Malaspina ice-field. 

Piedmont Glaciers. 

This type is represented in the region explored by the Malas- 
pina glacier. This is a plateau of ice having an area of l)etween 
500 and 600 sipiare miles, and a surface elevation in the central 
])art of between l,o()() and 1,(500 feet. It is fed by the Agassiz, 
Seward, Marvine, and Hayden glaciers, and is of such volume that 



186 /. (\ JiU-s^cll — K.vpcdifion In Mount SI. J'JUas. 

it hiis ai)parently (lis[)laee(l the sea aiid holds it l)ac'k by a wall 
t)f debris deposited about its niaruin. All of its eentral i)ortion 
is oi' rlear white ice, and around all its margins, exeeptinti where 
the Aji'assiz and Seward ghieiers eonie in, it is boun(h'il by a 
fringe of debris and by moraines resting on the ice. Along the 
seaward border tlie belt of fringing moraines is about tive miles 
broa(h 'i'he inner margin of the moraine 1)elt is eomposed of 
roeks and dirt, without vegetation, and sei)arated n)ore or less 
('onn)l('tely into belts by strips of clear ice. On going from the 
clear ice toward tlie margin of the glaeier one finds slirubs and 
flowers scattered liere and thc're over the surface. Farther sea- 
ward the vegetation becomes more dense and the flowers cover 
the whole surface, giving it the a})pearance of a luxuriant 
jneadow. Still farther toward the margin dense clumps of alder, 
with scattered spruce trees, become conspicuous, while on the 
outer margin spruce trees of larger size form a veritable forest. 
That this vegetation actually grows on the moraines above a liv- 
ing glacier is proved beyond all question by holes and crevasses 
which reveal the ice beneath. The curious lakes scattered abun- 
dantly over the moraine-covered areas, and occupying hour-glass- 
shaped depre-ssions in the ice, have already been described. 

From the southern end of the Samovar hills, where the Seward 
and Agassiz glaciers unite, there is a compound moraine stretch- 
ing southward, which divides at its distal extremity and forms 
great curves and swirl-like figures indicating currents in the 
glacier. 

All the central part of the ])lateau is, as already stated, of clear 
white i(!e, free from moraines ; at a distance it has the a]i])earance 
of a broad snow surface. This is due to the fact that tlu^ ice is 
melted and honey-combed during the warm summer and the 
surfjice becomes vesicular and loses its banded structure. A 
rougli, coral-like crust, due to the freezing of the i)ortions melted 
fluring the day, freipiently covers large areas and resem1)les a 
thick hoar-frost. Crevasses are numerous, but seldom more than 
a few feet deep. They appear to l)e the lowt'r j)ortions of ilccp 
crevasses in the tril)utary streams wdiich have ])artially closed, or 
else not completely removed by the melting and evaporation of 
the surface. 

Many of the crevasses are Idled with water, but there are no 
surface streams and no lakes. Melting is rapid during the warm 



The Malaspina Glacier. 187 

Slimmer days, but the water finds its way down into the glacier 
and joins the general subglacial drainage. It is evident that the 
streams beneath the surface must be of large size, as they furnish 
the only means of escape for the waters flowing lieneath the 
Agassiz, Seward and INIarvine glaciers, as well as for the waters 
formed by the melting of the great Malaspina glacier. 

The outer borders of the Malaspina glacier are practically 
stationary, but there are currents in its central part. Like the 
expanded ends of some of the Al})ine glaciers, as the Galiano 
and Tjucia glaciers, for example, this glacier is of the nature of a 
delta of ice, analogous in many of its features to river deltas. 
As a stream in meandering over its delta builds up one portion 
after another, so the currents in an expanded ice-foot may now 
follow one direction and deposit loads of debris, and then 
slowly change so as to occupy other positions. This action 
tends to destroy the individuality of morainal belts and to form 
general sheets of debris. The presence of such currents as here 
suggested has not been proved by measurements, but the great 
swirls in the Malaspina glacier and the tongues of clear ice in 
the upper portions of the debris fields on the smaller glaciers 
strongly suggest their existence. 

The Malaspina glacier is evidently not eroding its bed ; any 
records that it is making must be l;)y deposition. Should the 
glacier melt away completely, it is evident that a surface formed 
of glacial debris, and very similar to that now existing in the 
forested plateau east of Yakutat bay, would be revealed. 

The former extent of the Malas}nna glacier cannot be deter- 
mined, but it is probable that during its greatest expansion it 
extended seaward until deep water was reached, and broke off 
in bergs in the same manner as do the Greenland glaciers at the 
present day. Soundings in the adjacent waters might possibly 
determine approximately the former position of the ice-front, 
and it is possible that submarine moraines might be discovered 
in this way. The Pimpluna reefs, reported by Russian navi- 
gators and indicated on many maps, may possibly be a remnant 
of the moraine left by the Piedmont glacier from the adjacent 
coast. 

The glaciers west of Icy bay were seen from the top of Pin- 
nacle pass cliffs, and are evidently of the same character as the 
Malaspina glacier and fully as extensive. A study oi" these Pied- 



ISS /. C. Itasscll — Expedition fo Mount »S'/. Elias. 

mont glaciers will certainly thi'ow much litrht on the interpreta- 
tions of the trlaciat records over northeastern Xortli America. 
Theii' vahie in this connection is enhaiiec(l Iiy tiie tact that they 
are now retn^ating and making (k'i)osits ratlier tlian renii)\ing 
})revious geological records. 

The exi)edition ol' last svimmei' was a hasty reconnoissance, 
during which hut little detail work could he undertaken. The 
actual study of the ice-fields of the St. Klias region i-eniains for 
those who come later. 



PART V. 
HEIGHT AND POSITION OF MOUNT ST. ELIAS. 

The height and position of Mount St. EHas have been measured 
several times during the past century with varying results. 
The measurements made prior to the expedition of 1890 have 
been summarized and discussed by W. H. Dall, of the United 
States Coast and Geodetic Survey, and little more can be done 
at present than give an abstract of his report. 

The various determinations are shown in the tal)le below. 
The data from which these results were obtained have not l)een 
published, with the exception of the surveys made by the United 
States Coast Survey in 1874, printed in report of the super- 
intendent for 1875. 

Hchjld and Position of Mount St. Elias. 



Date. 



Authority. 



Height. 



Latitude. 



Longitude 
W. 



1786 
1791 
1794 
1847 

1847 
1849 

1872 

1874 



La Perouse 

Malaspina 

Vancouver 

Russian Hydrographic 

Chart 1378 

Tebenkof (Notes) 

Tebenkof (Chart VII) -- 

Buch. Can. Insehi 

EngUsh Admiralty Chart 

2172 

U. S. Coast Survey 



12,672 feet 
17,851 " 



17,854 " 

16,938 " 

16,938 " 

16,758 " 

14,970 " 
19,500±400 



60° 15^ 00'^ 

60 17 35 

60 22 30 

60 21 00 

60 22 36 

60 21 30 

60 17 30 

60 21 00 

60 20 45 



140°10^00'' 

140 52 17 

140 39 00 

141 00 00 
140 54 00 
140 54 00 

140 51 00 

141 00 00 
141 00 12 



All of the figures given in the table have been copied from 
Ball's report, with the exception of the position determined by 
Malaspina ; this is from a report of astronomical observations 
made during Malaspina's voyage, which places the mountain in 
latitude 60° 17' 35" and longitude 134° 33' 10" west of Cadiz.* 
Taking the longitude of Cadiz as 6° 19' 07" west of Greenwich, 
the figures tabulated above are obtained. 



■ Ante, p. 65. 



20— Nat. Geoo. Mac, vol. Ill, LS'il. 



(189) 



100 T. C. Riixfifll—ExiH'dithyn to Mnnui St. KUas. 

It was intended that Mr. Kerr's report, forming Appendix 1?, 
should contain a detailed record of the triantrulation executed 
last summer, but a careful revision of his work by a committee of 
the National (!eoo;ra])hic Society led to the conclusion that the 
results were not of sufiicient accuracy to set at rest the questions 
raised by the discrepancies in earlier measurements of the height 
of IMount St. Elias ; and as the work will ])roliably be revised and 
extended during the summer of 18'.)1, only the map forming plate 
8 will be published at this time. Some preliminary publications 
of elevations have Ix^en made. l)ut these must l)e taken as ap- 
proximations merely.* 

B}' consulting the map forming ])lat(' S it will be seen that 
Mounts Cook, N'ancouver, Irving,- Owen, etc., are not in the St. 
Elias range. Neither do they form a distinct range either tojx)- 
graphically oi' geologically, luicb of these mountains is an inde- 
])endent U})lift, although they may have some structural con- 
nection, and are of about the same geological age. Mount Cook 
and the peaks most intimately associated with it are composed 
mainly of sandstone and shale belonging to the Yakutat system. 
Mounts ^^ancouver and Irving are prol)al)ly of the same char- 
acter, l)ut definite proof that this is the case has not been ob- 
tained. 

The St. Elias u])lift is distinct and well marked, both geolog- 
ically and toi)Ogra})hically, and deserves to be considered as a 
mountain range. The limits of the range have not been deter- 
mined, but, so far as known, its maximum elevation is at Mount 
St. Elias. The range stretches away from this culminating point 
both northeastward and northwestward, and has a well-marked 
V-shape. The angle formed by the two branches of the range 
where they unite at Mount St. Elias is, by estimate, about 140°. 
Eaeli arm of the V if^ determined by a I'ault, or ])erhai)S mor(^ 
accurately by a series of iaults liaxing the same general eoui'se, 
along which the orographic blocks forming the range have been 
ui)heaved. The structure of the range is monoclinal, and re- 

* The shore-line of the ipap, plate 8, and the positions of the initial 
points or base-line of tlie trian-rulation are from the work of the I^nitt'(l 
States Coast Survej'. The extreme western portion is from maps puljlislunl 
by the New York TUncH and Topham expeditions. All the topographic 
data aiv by ^\y. Kerr, and all credit for tlic work and all i-csi)onsibility for 
its accui'.icy I'cst with him. The nuiufiiciaturc is pi-incipaily my own, and 
has been a|)|>rovcil by a cuiiimitlec ol' t hr National < icoL;ra|>hic Society. 



Topoyraphij of fhc St. Elias Range. 191 

senibles the type of mountain structure characteristic of the great 
basin. The dip of the tilted blocks is northward. 

The crest of the St. Elias range, as already stated, is composed 
of schists which rest on sandstone, supposed to belong to the 
Yakutat system. The geological age of the uplift is, therefore, 
very recent. The secondary topographic forms on the crest of 
the range have resulted froni the weathering of the upturned 
edges of orographic blocks in which the bedding planes are 
crossed by joints. The resulting forms are mainly pyraniids and 
roof-like ridges with triangular gables. Extreme ruggedness and 
angularity characterize the range throughout. There are no 
rounded domes or smoothed and polished surfaces to suggest 
that the higher summits have ever been subjected to general 
glacial action ; neither is there any evidence of marked rock de- 
cay. Disintegration of all the higher peaks and crests is rapid, 
owing principally to great changes of temperature and the freez- 
ing of water in the interstices of the rock ; Ijut the delsris result- 
ing from this action is rapidly carried away by avalanches and 
glaciers, so that the crests as well as the subordinate features in 
the sculj^ture of the cliffs and pyramids are all angular. The 
subdued and rounded contour, due to the accumulation of the 
products of disintegration and decay, the indications of the ad- 
vancing age of mountains, are nowhere to l)e seen. The St. Elias 
range is young ; probably the very youngest of the important 
mountain ranges on this continent. No evidences of erosion 
previous to the formation of the ice-sheets that now clothe it have 
]:>een observed. Glaciers apparently took immediate possession 
of the lines of depression as the mountain range grew in height, 
and furnish a living example from which to determine the part 
that ice streams play in mountain sculpture. 



Appendix A. 

OFFICIAL INSTRUCTIONS GOVERNING THE F^XPEDITION. 

In order to make tlie records of the St. Elian ex])edition eomplete, cojjies 
of the instructions under w hich the work was carried out are appended : 

Department of the Interior, 
United States Geological Survey, Geologic Branch, 

]Vitsli!,u/to)i, I). C, Mdij 28, 1890. 
Mr. I. C. Russell, Geologic. 

Sir : You are hereby detailed to visit the St. EHas range of Alaska for 
work of exploration, under the joint auspices of the National Geographic 
Society and the United States Geolpgical Survey. The Geological Survey 
furnishes instruments and contributes the sum of $1,000 towards the ex- 
penses of the expedition. The money devoted to this purpose is taken 
from the api)ropriation for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1890, and the 
manner of its exi)enditure must conform to that fact. 

The Survey expects that you will give special attention to glaciers, to 
their distribution, to the associated toi^ographic tj'pes, to indications of 
the former extent of glaciation, and to types of subaerial seuli)ture under 
special conditions of erosion, and that you will also bring back informa- 
tion with reference to the age of the formations seen and the type of 
structure of the range. 

With the aid of Mr. Kerr, it is expected that you will secure definite 
geographic information as to the belt of country traversed by you. 
Very respectfulh^ • G. K. Gilbert, 

Chief Geologist. 
Approved, 

J. W. Powell, Director. 



Department ok the Interior, 
United States Geolocucal Survey, (teologic Branch, 

Washington, D. C, May 28, ISDO. 
Mr. I. C. Russell, Geologist. 

Sir: You will ])roce,ed at the earliest jn-acticable date to Tacoma, Wash- 
ington Territory, and thence liy water to Sitka, Alaska, at which j^oint you 
will make special arrangements to visit the St. Elias range of mountains 
and make geological examinations as per instrucitions otherwise commu- 
nicated. Mr. Mark B. Kerr, Disbursing Agent, will report to you at Vic- 
toria, B. C, and accompany you on the expedition, assisting you in the 
capacities of Disbursing Agent and Toi)ographcr. On the con)i)letion of 

(192) 



Mr. Kcrr'f< Udall. 193 

your work you will return to "Washington, the route lieing left to your dis- 
cretion, to be determined l)y considerations wdiich cannot now be foreseen- 
Very respectfully, G. K. Gilbert, 

CJuef Geologist. 
Approved, 

J. W. Powell, Director. 



Department of the Interior, 
United States Geological Survey, Geologic Branch, 

Washington, D. C, Mat) 28, 1890. 
Mr. Mark B. Kerr, Disbursing Agent. 

Sir : You are hereby detailed to assist ]\Ir. I. C. Russell, Geologist, who 
starts at once on an expedition to Alaska, under the joint auspices of the 
National Geographic Society and the United States Geological Survey. It 
is expected that you will immediately aid him in disbursement, and that 
you will act during the exploratory part of the expedition as topographer. 
Your duties will, however, not be limited to these special functions, but 
you will be expected to perform any other duties he may assign to you, 
and to labor in every way for the success of the expedition. 

It is expected that you will be reappointed to the grade of topograi:)her 
on the United States Geological Survey on the 1st of July, 1890, and you 
will please take the required oath of office before your departure. 

The money remaining in your iDOSsession as Disbursing Agent includes 

that needed to meet Mr. Russell's salary and your own, and also the sum 

of $1,000, allotted from the funds of the Geographic Branch for expenses 

of the expedition prior to June 30. This amount you will expend as 

directed by Mr. Russell, and his authority and certificate will need to 

accompanj^ your vouchers in rendering account of the same. 

Very respectfully, G. K. Gilbert, 

Chief Geologist. 
Approved, 

J. W. Powell, Director. 



Department of the Interior, 

United States Geological Survey, Geologic Branch, 

Washington, D. C, May 28, 1890. 
Mr. Mark B. Kerr, 

Dishu rsing Agent. 

Sir : You will proceed at once to San Francisco, California, and thence 

by steamer or by rail and steamer to Sitka, Alaska. It is expected that 

you will join Mr. I. C. Russell, Geologist, at Victoria, B. C, or at Sitka ; and 

you will report to him for further orders. 

Very respectfully, G. K. Gilbert, 

Chief Geologist. 
Approved, ' ' ■ 

J. W. Powell, Director. 



l!)-i I. ('. Jiit.s.sr/l — Expedition fo Mount St. Klias. 

\V<(xliii,i/l,„i, I). ('., Mdij ^9, 1890. 
Ml'. Mai;k r>. Ki:i:u, To/xir/rdjilicr. 

Sik: You are hereby assif,nie(l to field-work in tlie vieinity of Mount St. 
Elias, Alaska, in the party under ehar<,a! of 3Ir. I. C Russell. Upon the 
receipt of these instructions you will please proceed without di'lay ti> tlu' 
field, and map upon a scale of four miles to an inch such territory in the 
vii'inity of Mount St. Elias, inckiding tliat mountain, as the field season 
will i)erniit. The work should, if practicable, l)e controlled, 1)y trian<rula- 
tiun. Special attention in tlie course of your worlc should ))e fiiven to 
measuring: tlu' altitude of Mount St. Klias, and it should be determined l)y 
trians^ulation and also, if i>ractical)le, l)y barometer in such manner as to 
be conclusive. 

The topographic work shoul<l be controlled ])y triaiigulation. As many 
positions on this coast are approximately Ivuown, ini-luding a nundier of 
the prominent peaks, astronomical determinations of position will not be 
necessary unless needed to supplement the triangulation. 

Tlie details of your outfitting and the management of the work will l)e 
left to your own judgment. 

Very respectfully, Hk.n'uy (iannett, 

Chief T()j)ugr(ij>li< r. 



XA T/nXAL (UCOail. I I'lIK ' S(>( 'lETY. 

M('iii<>r((ii(huii of fii.'<lriicti(iii.'< t<i tlie Party sent out nm/rr flic Dinrlinn nf Mr. 
I. ('. RuK.^cll, a.s.'ii'ited lii/ Mr. Mark B. Kerr, to explore tlie Mount !St. Elias 
Jiegioii, Alaska, 1890. 

The general object of the expedition is to make a geograpiiic reconnois- 
sance of as large an area as practicable in the St. Elias range, Alaska, in- 
cluding a study of its glacial phenomena, the preparation of a map of the 
region explored, and the measurement of the height of Mount St. Elias 
and other neighboring mountains. Oliservations should also ]:)e made and 
information collected on other sul)jects of general scientific interest as far 
as practicable. 

The purpose of these instructions is mainly to suggest the lines of in- 
vestigation that give promise of valuable results, l>ut it is not intended 
that they shall limit the director of tiie expedition in the exercise of his 
own dist-reti<m. 

(t.vrdineh (i. Wvwwww^, ('liairiinoi, 
M.\KciTs Bakich, 

WiLLAKD D. JOHNSO.N', 

Comuutire. 
Wa.sliiiHjIoti, I). ('., Mail .J9, 1S90. 



Appendix B. 
REPORT ON TOPOGRAPHIC WORK. 

BY MARK B. KERR. 

In addition to the ahicent of Mount St. Elias, it was part of tlie original 
plan of the exjjedition to make an accnrate topographic map of the region 
explored. It was not, however, for this purpose proposed to divide tlie 
party or to deviate much from the most direct route to Mount St. Elias 
from Yakutat bay. Triangulation of fair precision was provided for. 
Details were to be filled in by approximate methods. 

Field-work began June 20 by the careful measurement of a base-line, 
3,850 feet in length, near the point of landing, on the northern shore of 
Yakutat bay. Expansion was readily carried to the foot-hills, and several 
horizontal angles were taken to an astronomical station of the United 
States Coast and Geodetic Survey at Port Mulgrave. In the region of 
these initial triangles, work was done from a central camp ; and topo- 
graphic details were fixed with considerable precision by intersection and 
vertical angles. 

After the departure of the expedition from the Base Line camp, an acci- 
dent to the transit made resort to an inferior instrument necessary, and, 
furthermore, as the region traversed proved to be ill-adapted to, and the line 
of travel too direct for, the proper development of a naiTOW belt of tri- 
angles, the anticipation of a degree of precision in the triangulation whii-h 
would give high value to the determinations of position and altitude of 
the several peaks was not realized ; but topographic maj^ work, showing 
the general features, altitudes and location of the mountain ranges, N'allej's 
and glaciers, was extended over al)out 600 square miles. 

Within the approximate geometric control, stations were interpolated 
by the three-point method, and minor locations were multiplied by inter- 
section and connected by sketch. The best meander possible under the 
circumstances was carried forward on the line of travel by compass direc- 
tions and estimates of distance from time intervals. The work ceased 
August 22 with the abandonment of the instruments in a snow-storm of 
four days' duration on the eastern slope of INIount St. Elias. 

The accompanying map (a reduction of which forms plate 8, page 75) 
shows the ice-streams and peculiar mountain topography of a region here- 
tofore unvisited, and constitutes a considei'able addition to the geography 
of Alaska. 



(195) 



AlM'KXDIX C. 

REPORT ON AURIFEROUS SANDS FROM YAKUTAT I'.AY. 

BY J. STAM.KV-UKOWN. 

Anioiifi; the specimens o1>tained by Mr. I. C. Russell during the course of 
his explorations on and about Mount St. Elias is a bottle of sand procured 
from the l)each on the extreme southern end of Khantaak island, Yakutat 
])ay, and characteristic of the shore material over a large area. This sand 
was turned over to me for examination, and additional interest was given 
to its study by the fact tluit it is from a com})aratively uninvestigateil 
region and possesses, i)erhaps, economic value ; for the sam])le is gold-hear- 
ing, and it is said that a "color" can readily bi' obtained l)y "panning" 
at many points on the bay shore. 

Macroscopically, the sand has the appearance of ordinary linely connni- 
nuted beach material; but it diflers in the uniformity of the size of its 
])articles from beach sand from Fort ISIonroe and Sullivan island, South 
Carolina, with which it was compared. Its mineralogic constituents 
greatly sur])ass in variety those of the sands referred to, ])ut are markedly 
similar to those of gold-bearing sand from New Zealand. At least twelve 
minerals are present, with an unusual predominance of one, as will be 
noted later. Through the mixture of white, green, and black grains, a dull 
greenish-black color is given to the mass. The roundness of fragments is 
such as usually results from water action, but it is less than that which re- 
sults from transportation by wind. 

When put into a heavy liquid (Thoulet solution of a density of ;>.l) in 
order to determine the specific gravity of the constituents, it was found 
that the sand is made up largely of the heavier materials, for the amount 
that floated was trifling comi)ared with that which quickly sank. Even 
the abundant quartz was largely carried down by the weightier ingredi- 
ents bound up within it, and only a few water-clear fragments were left 
1)ehind. Tins would seem to suggest that the lighter minerals are lacking 
in the neighboring rocks, or else have been carried to greater distances by 
the sorting power of the water. 

Among the minerals recognized, gold is the most impoi-tant. though rela- 
tively not abundant. It occurs in flakes or flattened grains from a quarter 
to a half of a millimeter in size. The i)articles are suliiciently numerous 
to be readily selected from their associates by the aid of "panning" and 
a hand lens of good magnifying pc^wer, and if distributed throughout the 
beach as plentifullj^ as in the sample would, under favorable conditions, 
pay for working. The flakes in their roiuided ciiaracter show the effect 
of the agency which separated tiieiii fV<iin their matrix ; a se|>aiatioii so 
coiii])lete that no rock is foiiinl aillirriii'.:- to the liiains. 

(li)(J) ' 



Analysis of Auriferous Sand. 197 

JNIagnctite is present in great abundance and in a finely divided state, 
the largest grains not exceeding a millimeter in length. It forms by 
weight alone 15 or 20 per cent, of the entire mass, and when the latter is 
sifted through a sieve of a hundred meshes to the inch it constitutes 44 
per cent, of this fine material. Crystallographic faces are rare, and though 
often marred, still oclahedrons (111, 1) of considerable perfection are found. 

Garnet occurs in such profusion that a pink tint is gi\-en to a mass of 
selected grains of uniform size, and its predominance may l)e considered 
the chief pliysical characteristic of the sand. 

Two species were noted : one is a brilliant wine-red variety, which, 
though not nearly so numerous as its duller relative, occurs more fre- 
(pieutly in crystals — the trapezohedral faces (211, 2-2) predominating. 
The other gai'uet is readily distinguished by its lighter amethystine tint 
and its greater abundance. Crystallographic faces are somewhat rare and 
invariably dodecahedral (110, i). In the absence of chemical analyses, 
any statements as to the exact species to which these garnets should be 
referred would be largely conjectural. Attention is quickly drawn to the 
perfection of these minute garnets in their crystallographic faces and out- 
lines, and to tlielr association with rounded fragments of their own kind as 
well as of other minerals. Have these crystals survived by reason of their 
hai'dness or by favoring conditions, or does their preservation suggest the 
impotency of wave-action in the destruction of minute l:)odies? 

Among the 1)lack, heavy grains occur individuals which, excejit in 
shape and non-magnetic character, resemble magnetite. On crushing be- 
tween glass slides, thin slivers are obtained which in transmitted light are 
green, and whicli, from thyir cleavage, pleochroism, high index of refrac- 
tion, small extinction angle, and insolubility in acid, are readily recognized 
as hornl>len(le. 

Two groups of grains were noted which are distinguishable Ijy slight 
variation in color. Both are clear-yellowish green, but one is somewhat 
darker than the other. The optical properties of both indicate pyroxene 
and possibly olivine. Fortunately a fragment was obtained in the ortho- 
diagonal zone nearly normal to an optic axis which gave an axial figure 
of sufficient deflniteness to indicate its optically positive character. A 
number of grains were selected from minerals of l;)0th colors and subjected 
to prolonged heating in hydrochloric acid without decomposition, indicat- 
ing that Ijoth minerals are pyroxene. 

A few zircons, a fraction of a millimeter in size but perfect in form, wei'e 
found associated with others rounded on their solid angles and edges. 
The crystals are of the common shoi't form and bear the usual faces in a 
greater or less degree of development. Pyramids of the first and second 
order alternate in magnitude ; pinacoid encroaches upon jirism, and ricr 
irrsa. 

Quartz constitutes by far the largest proportion of the minerals, l^oth in 
l)ulk and in weight. It is always fragmental; sometimes water-clear, but 
chiefly occurs in opaque grains of different colors. It is seldom free from 
matei-ial of a higher specific gravity, and is often so tinted as to ))e almost 
indii~tinguishable from magnetite, Imt icadily hlcaclics in acid. 

27-N.\T. Gkog. Mac;., vot.. TIT, isni. 



198 I. C. IlusscU—Krprditlon lo Movni St. Klhis. 

Feldspar is sparinjrly present, and ineludeslmth ninnoclinic and tridinic 
forms, ■whose ('rvstull()<j:rai)lur Txmndaries are invarialily lackiiiLr. 

Treatment of the sand with (Uhite acid jjroduces etlervesoenee, Avhieh is 
not (hie to inerustations of soihnm cnrlHinate. Uy persistent seareli anionic 
partielessei)a rated in a heavy sohition, a few grains were diseovered whieli, 
from their complete s()hil)ihty with efferveseenee in very <hhite arid, as 
well as their oi)tieal properties, left no douht as to tlieir \m\\\i eak-iti-. 

The miea ,o;roni> has only one representative, biotite, and this ociiirs 
most spa rintily. TIioul;!! iiuicli of the sand was examined, Init few fraji- 
ments were fonnd. its foliated character renders it easih' trans])orted by 
Avater and exjjlains its absence fmiii ainonij: the heavy nunerals. 

Shaly, slaty and scliistose material forms the major i)art of the coarser 
jirains. Thin sections from the larji^est pieces i)lainly indicated liorn- 
blende schist. 

A ret,don of <,daciers wouhl seem lo he favorable not only to the collec- 
lioii ofnicleoric material, but also to the destruction of the country rocks, 
the setting free of their nnneraloi^ic constituents in a comparatively fresli 
state, and their trausiiortalioii to the sea. It was ho])ed that this sand 
would yield some of the rarer varietii's of miutrals, but tests for native 
iron, platinum, cliromite, jrueiss, and the titaniferous nunerals proved iu- 
elfectiial. Titanium is present, b>it in such small (juantities that it could 
only be (U'ti'cted by means of hydros^en peroxide. The use of acid super- 
suli)hate and the borotungslate of calcium test of basaulx failed to reveal, 
the iiresence of native iron. 

It will be seen from the fore^oiuL;' enuniei'at ioii that the sand is made 
up of j^rains of u'old, mauiU'tite, iiarut'l, hornblende, ])yroxi'ue, zircon, 
(|uartz, feldspar, calcite and mica, associati'd with frajiinents of a shaly, 
slaty and schistose character. Whik- the infoiiuation at hand is haidly 
sutlicient to warrant nnich speculation concerning;- the rock masses of the 
interior, still there is no doubt that the s;ind is derived from the destruc- 
tion of metamorphic rocks. 



Appendix 1). 
REPOllT UN FOSSIL PJ.ANT.S. 

by le.stek v. ward. 

Department ok the Ixtekiok, 
United >State.s GEOLOtiUAi. Sirvey, 

Washington, D. ('., March Li, ISOl. 
Mr. I. C. Russell, 

Unital Stales Gcokxjiral Sitrri-i/. 

IMy Dear Sir: The following report upon the small collection of fossil 
l)lants made hy you at Pinnacle pass, near ]\Iount St. Elias, Alaska, and 
sent to this division for identification has Ijeen prepared l)y Professor F. 
H. Knowltou, who gave the collection a careful study during my absence 
in Florida. Previous to going away I had somewhat hastily examined 
the specimens and seen that they consisted chiefly of the genus Salir, 
some of them reminding me strongly of living species. I have no doubt 
that Professor Knowlton's more thorough comparisons can be relied upon 
with as much confidence as the nature of the collection will permit, and I 
also agree with his conclusions. 

"The collection consists of seven small hand si»i'cimens,upon which are 
impressed no less than seventeen more or less completely preserved dicoty- 
ledonous leaves. 

" These specimens at first sight seem to represent six or eight species, 
but after a careful study I think I am safe in reducing the number to four, 
as several of the impressions have been nearly obliterated by prolonged 
exposure and cannot be studied with much satisfaction. 

" The four determinable species belong, without much doubt, to the 
genus SaU.i: Number 1, of which there is but a single specimen, I have 
identified wdth Saliv califonuca, Lesquereux, from the auriferous gravel 
deposits of the Sierra Nevada in Califjrnia.* The finer nervation of the 
specimens from the auriferous gravels is not clearly shown in Lesquereux's 
figures, nor is it well preserved in the Mount St. Elias specimens ; 1 )ut the 
size, outline, and primary nervation are identical. 

" Number 2, of which there are six or eight specimens, may be com- 
pared with Salix raeana, Heer,t a species that was first described from 
Greenland and was later detected by Lesquereux in a collection IVom 
Cooks inlet, Alaska.J The M(junt St. Elias specimens are not very much 
like the original figures of Pleer, but are very similar, in outline at least, 
to this species as figured by Lesquereux.^ They are also very similar to 

* Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. VI, no. 2, 1878, p. 10, pi. i, figs. 18-21. 
fFlor. foss. Arct., vol. 1, 18G8, p. 1()2, pi. iv, figs. Il-i:{; pi. xlvii, fig. 11. 

JProc. Nat. Mus., vol. V, 1882, p. HI. 

gloc. cit., pi. vili, fig. 0. 

(199) 



200 /. ('. /i'(^w7/ — l'lq>cdi(l<jii (<j Moil id M Klias. 

some loriiiK of the livinji; S. r<islr(il<t, Kiclianlsoii, witli entire leaves. It is 
clearly a willow, but i-loser identiticatinn iiiusl remain for more complete 
material. 

" Number o, rei)resented Ijv four or live siiecimens, is liroailly eUi|itical 
in outline, and is also clearly a Salir. It is unlike any fossil form witli 
which I am familiar, but is very similar to the living »S'. nU/ricana, For., \ ur. 
rotundifoUa, and to certain forms of S. sih■siaca,^Xi\\^\. The nervation is 
very distinctly preserved, an<l has all the characters of a Avillow leaf. 

"Number 4, represented by three or four very tine specimens, is a \ery 
large leaf, measuring 1:5 cm. in length and 3] cm. in width at the broadest 
])oint. It may 1k> compared with Siill.r macrophijUa, Ileer,* but it cannot 
l)c tills species. It is also like some of the living forms of »S'. lufjni, Marsh., 
from wliicli it ditlers in having perfectly entire margins. 

" Willie It Is manifestly impossible, on the basis of the above IdeulUlca- 
tions, to speak with confiilence as to the age or formation containing these 
leaves, it can liardly l)eoltU'r tlian tlie INIiocene, and from its strong re- 
send)lance to the present existing lloi'a of Alaska it is likely to bi' luuch 
younger." [F. 11. Knowlton.] 

Very sincerely yours, Lestek V. W'akd. 



*Tert. Fl. Ilelv., vol. II, 18",<!, p. 20, pi. l.wii, fig. 4. 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Admiralty bay 56 

Agassi/, glacier, Ascent of. 147 

named 7.3 

Age of St. Elias range 175 

Alpenstocks, Necessity for 11)5 

Alpine glaciers 170, 180 

Alton, Edmund, Contrilmtions to ex- 
ploration fund hy 75 

Archanqellca, Mention of SO, 114 

Atrevida (The), Mention of. 08 

Arevida glacier 02,105 

Auriferous sands 190, 11)7, 108 

Avalanches 145, 165 

Bale de Monti 60 

— named by La P6rouse r.o 

BaUer, Marcus, Explorations by 70, 7v! 

— reference to biliograpliy l)y 58 

Base Line, Measurement of 80 

Hear, Meeting with 94,100 

Belcher, Sir Edward, Exolorations 

by ■ 08, 09 

Bell, A. Graham, Contribution to ex- 

ploraiion fund by 75 

Bell, Charles J., Contribution to ex- 
ploration fund by 75 

Bering bay. Mention of. 50 

Bering, Vitus, Explorations by .• 58 

Jiien, Morris, (Contribution to explora- 
tion fund by 75 

Birnie, Jr., Rogers, Contribution toex- 

ploralion fund by 75 

Black glacier, Brief acccount of... lol, 104 

Blossom island, Description of 113, 122 

Boussin, Henry. Mention of 70 

Broka, George, Explorations by 73, 74 

Camp hands 1G6 

Carpenter, Z T., Contribution to ex- 
ploration fund by 75 

Carroll, Colonel James 

Cascade glacier named 144 

Chaix hills named 73 

Chariot, The, Mention of 14(i 

Chatham, Mention of 60 

Cherikof, Alexei, Explorations of. 68 

Christie', J. H., Member of expedition.. 70 

— Work of. 82, 83, 84, 90, 103, 112, 

113,123, 102 
Clover, Richardson, Contribution to 

exploration fund by 75 

Cook, Colonel James, Explorations of.. 68 
Cori//in (The) in Disencliantinent bay.. 100 

— Return of 103 

Creva.sses 181, 182 

— at Pinnacle pass 130 

Cross sound, visited by Vancouver's 

expedition 07 

Crumbach, J. H., Member of expedi- 
tion 70 

— Work of. 00, 103, 122, 126, 151 

131. 135, 139 

Dagelet, M., Mention of. 00 

Dall, VV. H., Explorations by 70, 72 

— reference to bibliography by 58 

Dalton, John, glacier named for 08 

— mention of 73 

Definition of formations in St. Elias 

region 167 



Page. 
Desengario bay, named by Malaspina.. 03 
Diffges' sound, named by Vancouver... 08 
Diller, J. S., Contribution to explora- 
tion fund by 75 

Dip at Pinnacle pass 140 

Discovery (The), Mention of. 00 

Disenchantment bay, t;anoe tripin..9e, 103 

last view of. 103 

mention of 50 

visited by Malaspina 63, 64 

Dixon, Captain George, Explorations 

of. 60, 02 

De Monti bay. Arrival at 79 

Descuhierta (The), Mention of. 03 

Devil's club {Panax horridum). Men- 
tion of 95,115 

Dobbins, J. W., Contribution to explo- 
ration fund by 75 

Dome pass, named 140 

Doney, L. S., Member of expedition... 70 

— Work of. 85, 1,58, 159, 100, 102 

Douglass, Colonel, Explorations of 02 

Dry bay. Mention of. 55 

Farenholt, Lieutenant Commander O. 

F., Commander of U. S. s. Plnta 79 

Faulted pebble from Pinnacle pass..l71, 172 
Faults 83,130 

— Thrust, in Hitchcocli range US 

Floral hills, brief account of 106,108 

— pass, brief account of 105, 108, 110 

Formations of the St. Elias region 167 

Fossils at Pinnacle pass 140 

— description of Yakutat system 172 

Fossil plants. Report on, by Lester F. 

Ward 199,200 

Gabbro on the Marvine glacier 123 

Galiano, Don Dionisio Aleala, mention 

of 63 

Galiano glacier, Visit to 89, 90 

Gannett, Henry, Contribution to ex- 
ploration fund by 75 

— Instructions from 104 

Geology of the St. Elias region 107 

190,101, 174 
Geological Survey, Instructions from... 192 

103, 194 
Gilbert, G. K., Instructions from... 102, 193 
Glacial currents 187 

— river, best example of 183 

— streams 183, 184 

Glacier bay, mention of. 07 

Glaciers in Disenchantment bay in 

1792 04,0.5,97 

observed by Malaspina 04, 05 

Puget 07, 68 

— of the St. Elias region 170 

— west of Icy bay 187 

Greely, A. W., Contribution to e.xplora- 

tion fund by 75 

Guides, use of in ascending St. j'^lias... 106 
Guyot glacier named 73 

Haenke, D. Tadeo, H.aenke island 
named for 65 

— island, Condition of, when seen by 

Malaspina 03, 04. 05, 97 

visit to 96, 103 

C-'ot) 



202 



1. ( '. Ilnssi II — I'lr/xdilldii to 31(>iiiil SI. FJiils. 



PaKe. 

Hayden, Dr. F. V., glacier named for... 1U8 

Hiiyden, l-^verett, Contributions to ex- 
ploration fund liy 75 

Hayden glacier, Brief aecountof 108 

III), III 

Hays, J. W., Contribution to explora- 
tion fund bv 75 

Height and position of St. Elias 189, l!)U 

Hendricksen, Reverend Carl J., men- 
tion of no, 8:j 

Hitchcock, r'rofes.sor KJward, range 
named for 112 

— range, brief account of 112 

fiom Pinnacle pass i:w 

structure of 118 

Hooper, Captain C. L., Navigation of 

iJisenchantment bay ."iii, loo 

Hosmer, H .S.. Contribution to explo- 
ration fund by, ~h 

— return of K', 

— , volunteer assistant 70 

Hubb.ir<l, GardinerG , Contribution to 

exploration fund by 75 

— , glacier named for !)!) 

HubbarJ glacier, brief description of.. \)\) 

Icebergs, l''ormation of 08, !Hl, 101, loi 

— in Yakutat bay, description of k7 

Ice tunnels 181 

Instructions from Geological Survey.. V.vl 

VSi, 1114 

National Geographic .Society 11)4 

Irving, Professor K. L)., Mountain 
named for 144 

Johnson, Willard I)., Contribution to 
exploration fund by 75 

— exploration planned by 75 

Judd, .1. G., Contribution to explora- 
tion fund by 75 

Jungen, Knsign C. VV., Mention of 81 

Kerr, Mark B., assigned as an assist- 
ant 75 

— report on topographic work 195 

Kliantaak island, village on 79, 80 

King, Harry, Contribution to explora- 
tion fnna by 75 

Knapp, Hon. Lyman E., Mention of.... 79 

Knight island, scenery near 83 

named by Puget 08 

Knowlton, F. H., Report on fossil 
plants 199, 200 

V Astrolabe, Mention of 58 

La Boussole, Mention of 58 

Lake Castani, Named 7;i 

Liikelets <.n the glaciers 119, 120 

Lakes, Abandoned beds of, near Blos- 
som island 110 

La Perouse, .1. F. S., Explorations of...58,Go 
Leai'h, Boyiiton, Contribution to ex- 
ploration fund by 75 

Libbey, Professor William, explora- 
tions by 72,73 

Lindsley, VV. L., Member of expedi- 
tion... 70 

— Work of. 122, 131, 134, 135, 139, 144 

149, 1.50, 1.53, 157, 158,104 

Litiiya bay, mention of .55 

Logan, sir VV. V.., Mountain named for.. 141 

Lucia glacier, brief account of 192 

crossing of 105, 106,108,109 

Lynn canal, mention of 78 

Malaspina, Alejandro, Explorations 
of 02,66 



Page. 

Malaspina glacier, character of. 187 

described and named 71, 72 

, excursion on 120, 121, 102 

.from Blossom island 118,119 

, mention of. 50 

Maldonado, reference to 02, t!3 

Marvine, A. R., Glacier named for 112 

Marvine glacier. Account of... 112, 122, 124 
McCarteney, C. M., Contribution to ex- 
ploration fund by 75 

Mirage in Yakutat bay 87 

Moraines 195 

— medial, on the Marvine glacier 123 

— on the Malaspina glacier 134 

— near Yakutat bay 191 

Mount Augusta, avalanches on the 

sides of 145 

— elevMtion of. 117 

Mount Bering, Height and condition 

of 05 

Mount Cook, Appearance of 92 

— named 72 

— rocks composing 92 

Mount Fairweathcr, height of. 09 

Mount Logan, named , 141 

Mount Malaspina, Elevation of 117 

— named 72 

Mount Newton, name<l 140 

Mount St. Elias (see St. Elias, Mount). 

Mount Vancouver, named 72 

Miiir glacier, Visit to 78.79 

Mulgrave, Lord, Port Mulgrave named 

for 00 

National Geographic Society, Instruc- 
tions from 194 

Nev6 fields 180, 181, 182 

Nevvton glacier. Ascent of. 15i> 

Newton, Henry, Mountain named for.. 14<i 

New York Times, Expedition of 172, 173 

Nordhoff, Charles, Contribution to ex- 
ploration fund by 75 

Norris glacier. Mention of. 78 

Nunatali in the Lucia glacier 100 

Oil stoves, ll.se of 104 

Orel, Mention of the 70 

Otkrytie, Mention of the 09 

Oturit necessary for Alaskan expedi- 
tions 105 



Panax horriiluin 95, 

Partridge, William, Member of expe- 
dition 

— Work of 158, 1.59, 

Piedmont glaciers, characteristics of.. 

170, 185, 
example of. 120, 

— type of glaciers, mention of 

Pimpluna rocks, mention of. 70, 

Pinnacle pass clifTs, account of 132, 

, height of 

, view from 

, description of. 130, 

named 

— system, description of rocks of.. 107, 

^ named 

Pinla, mention of the 79 

Phipps, C. J., Port Mulgrave named 

for 

Plants on Blossom island 

Point Esperanza, Camp at 82, 84, 

— Glorious, named 

— Riou, Mention of 

Port Mulgrave.. 

named by I>ixon 

Powell, J. VV., Contribution to explora- 
tion fund by 



115 

70 
102 
122 
186 
121 

57 
187 
137 
137 
1.32 
132 
130 
170 
131 
.81 



Index. 



203 



Page. 

Powell, William B., Contribntion to 

exploration fund by 75 

Puerto <ie\ Desensauo, Mention of oii 

Puget, Peter, Explorations of (iC, (i8 

Pyramid harbor, Mention of 78 

Queen Charlotte, Mention of the GO 

— , voyage on the 7S, 7;) 

Rations IGi 

Report on sands from Yakiitat liay by 

J. Stanley-Brown lOfl, l'J7, inS 

Rivers, Glacial 18:5 

Rope cliff, named H9 

Route (npw), suggested li;3, 164 

Russell, Israel 0., Contribution to ex- 
ploration fund by 75 

Salmon (and trout) fishing 1G2 

Bands, Auriferous from Yakutat bay... 190 

197, 198 
Schwatka, Lieutenant Frederick, ex- 
plorations by 72.73 

Serpentine on the Marvine glacier 123 

Seton-Karr, H. W., explorations of... 72, 73 
Seward glacier, crevasses on... 133, 179, 180 

crossing of 142 

description of 177, 178, 179 

Seward, Hon. W. H., Glacier named 

for 129 

Sitka, arrival at 79 

Snow crests, figures of. 113 

— line description of Alpine glacier.s 

above 180 

below 183 

Snow line, elevation of. 92, 111 

— on mountain crests 182 

Soundings in Disenchantment bay 50 

Stamy, Thomas, Member of expedi- 
tion 70 

— Work of 137, 1.39, Hi, 150 

153, 157, 158, 100 
Stanley-Brown, J., Report on sands 

from Yakutat bay 190, 197, 198 

St. Elias described by La Peronse... 59, 60 

— , discovery of, by Bering 58 

— , first full view of 135 

— , view of. 91, 92 

— , height and position of. 189,190 

, by Tebenkof. 09 

of, determined by La Perouse.. 60 

Blalaspina 04, 05, 66 

— range, age of... 175 

, character of peaks of 175 

— region, glaciers of 170 



Page. 
St. Elias schist, description of rocks 

of 107,17.3 

— , suggested new route to 103, 104 

— uplift... 190 

Stein, Robert, translations bj'.. 50, (i4, 05, 60 

Strait of Annan 56 

Structure 174 

Swiss guiiies in Alaskan exploration... 100 
Sulphur, Mention of the 09 

Taku glacier. Mention of 78 

— inlet, Visit to 78 

Tebenkof, Colonel, Notes on Alaska 

by 09,70 

Terrace on northern shore of Yakutat 
bay 82, 85 

— point. Brief account of. 100 

Thompson, Gilbert, Contribution to 

exploration fund by 75 

Tide-water glaciers defined 101 

Topographic work. Report on 195 

Topham, Edward, Explorations by... 73, 74 
Topham, W. H., explorations by 73, 74 

— reference to map by 177 

Triangulation, (;ommencement of 80 

Tunnels in the ice 184 

Tyndall glacier. Named 73 

Tyndall, J., cited on marginal cre- 
vasses 127 

United States Coast and Geodetic Sur- 
vey, explorations of 70, 72 

Vancouver, Colonel George, Explora- 
tions by 00,08 

Veratrum viride, Mention of. 114 

Ward, Lester F, Report on fossil 

plants I'.iO, 200 

While, Thomas, Member of expedi- 
tion 76 

—, Work of 58,00 

Willis, Baily, contribution to explora- 
tion furid by 75 

Williams, C. A., contribution to explo- 
ration fund by 75 

Williams, William, explorations by.. 7:i, 74 

Yakutat bay, Arrival at 79 

.Base camp on Western shore 

of 80,89 

, Shores of described 57 

, Synonomy of 50 

— Indians, described by Dixon HI 

— system. Description of rocks of 107 

named 131 






CL-' 



n 



(204) 



